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RA1 231  .L4  H1 8      Lead  poisoning  in  po 


RECAP 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE  AND  LABOR 
BUREAU    OF    LABOR 


CHAS.  P,  NE1LL,  Commissioner 


LEAD  POISONING  IN  POTTERIES 

TILE  WORKS,  AND  PORCELAIN  ENAMELED 

SANITARY  WARE  FACTORIES 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES  BUREAU  OF  LABOR 

WHOLE  NUMBER  104 


^t 


INDUSTRIAL  ACCIDENTS  AND  HYGIENE  SERIES 

No.   1 


AUGUST  7,  1912 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1912 


KA/X3/^ 


M>8 


Columbia  (Mnitier^ftp 

mtfjeGitpaOtogork 

COLLEGE  OF 

PHYSICIANS  AND  SURGEONS 
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http://www.archive.org/details/leadpoisoninginpOOhami 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE  AND  LABOR 
BUREAU    OF    LABOR 

CHAS.  P.  NEILL,  Commissioner 


LEAD  POISONING  IN  POTTERIES 

TILE  WORKS,  AND  PORCELAIN  ENAMELED 
SANITARY  WARE  FACTORIES 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES  BUREAU  OF  LABOR 

WHOLE  NUMBER  104 


INDUSTRIAL  ACCIDENTS  AND  HYGIENE  SERIES 
No.  1 


AUGUST  7,  1912 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1912 


7?#  1231.  L  4- 


CO^TE^TTS. 


Introduction  and  summary 5-11 

Character  of  dangers  in  the  industry 6,7 

Sanitary  condition  of  potteries 7,8 

Extent  of  lead  poisoning  among  pottery  workers 8,  9 

Symptoms  and  progress  of  lead  poisoning 9, 10 

Typical  cases  of  lead  poisoning 10, 11 

Glazing  and  decorating  of  white  ware,  art  and  utility  ware,  and  tiles 12-14 

Glazing  and  decorating  of  pottery  in  general . 12 

Composition  of  glazes 12-14 

Glazing  and  decorating  of  white  ware 14-22 

Description  of  processes 14-20 

Mixing 15, 16 

Dijjping 16 

Work  of  dippers'  helpers 16-18 

Work  of  glost-kiln  men 18, 19 

Color  work 19,  20 

Workers  in  white- ware  potteries 20-22 

Number  and  distribution  of  employees 22 

Glazing  and  decorating  of  art  and  utility  ware 22-25 

Comparison  of  conditions  of  workers  in  art  and  utility  ware  potteries  and 

in  white-ware  potteries 22,  23 

Greater  danger  in  art  and  utility  ware  potteries 23 

Composition  of  the  glazes 24 

Number  and  distribution  of  employees 25 

Glazing  and  decorating  of  wall,  floor,  art,  and  roof  tiles 25-28 

Number  of  plants  studied 25 

Composition  of  glazes 25,  26 

Description  of  processes. 26-28 

Number  and  distribution  of  employees 28 

Sanitary  conditions  in  potteries  and  tile  works 29-31 

White-ware  potteries 29,  30 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries 30 

Tile  works 30,  31 

Porcelain  enameling  of  iron  sanitary  ware 31-41 

Number  of  plants  studied 31 

Composition  of  enamel  used 31-33 

Mixing  of  the  enamel 33-35 

Enameling 35,  36 

Dangers  involved  in  the  work 36 

Workers  in  iron  sanitary  ware  factories 37-39 

Mill  hands 37 

Enamelers 37-39 

Number  and  distribution  of  employees 39 

Sanitary  conditions  in  enameling  works 39^41 

8 


4  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Lead  poisoning  in  potteries 41-58 

Sources  of  information 41-43 

Lead  poisoning  in  white-ware  potteries 43-48 

Lead  poisoning  among  male  employees  in  white- ware  potteries 44-46 

Lead  poisoning  among  female  employees  in  white- ware  potteries 47 

Relative  number  of  cases  among  men  and  women 47,  48 

Lead  poisoning  in  art  and  utility  ware  potteries  and  in  tile  works 48-58 

Character  of  workers  and  wages  in  relation  to  lead  poisoning 48,  49 

General  belief  as  to  frequency  of  lead  poisoning 49-51 

Number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  found 51,  52 

Frequency  of  lead  poisoning  in  white-ware  potteries  and  in  art  and 

utility  ware  potteries  and  tile  works 52,  53 

Frequency  of  lead  poisoning  in  British  and  in  American  potteries. .  53-55 

Severity  of  lead  poisoning  in  British  and  in  American  potteries 55,  56 

Relative  frequency  of  lead  poisoning  in  men  and  in  women 56-58 

Lead  poisoning  in  the  making  of  porcelain  enameled  iron  sanitary  ware 58-65 

Intensive  study  of  148  men 59-62 

Length  of  exposure  in  lead-poisoning  cases 62-64 

Severity  of  lead  poisoning  in  iron  sanitary- ware  factories 64 

Effect  of  lead  with  reference  to  nature  of  the  work 64,  65 

Is  danger  of  lead  poisoning  increasing  in  industries  studied 65 

Appendix  A. — Hygienic  conditions  and  regulations  in  potteries,  tile  works, 
and  enameled  sanitary- ware  works  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Austria. .  66-82 

Introduction 66-69 

British  potteries  and  tile  works '. 69-72 

German  potteries  and  tile  works 72-76 

Austrian  potteries  and  tile  works 76 

Comparison  of  conditions  in  American  and  foreign  potteries ,  76,  77 

Lead  poisoning  in  British,  German,  and  Austrian  potteries 77-79 

Porcelain-enameled  sanitary  ware 79-82 

Appendix  B. — Regulations  for  factories  and  workshops  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture and  decoration  of  earthenware  and  china  and  in  the  vitreous  enameling 
ci  metal  or  glass  in  Great  Britain 83-92 


BULLETIN  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  LABOR. 

whole  no.  104.  WASHINGTON.  august  7, 1912. 

_  .  . 

LEAD  POISONING  INJWTERIES,  TILE  WORKS,  AND  PORCELAIN 
ENAMELED  SANITARY  WARE  FACTORIES. 

BY  ALICE   HAJIILTOjST,   M.   A.,   M.   D. 

INTRODUCTION  AND  SUMMARY. 

The  four  industries  included  in  this  study  have  one  important 
feature  in  common — that  of  employing  a  glaze  containing  one  or 
more  compounds  of  lead.  In  other  respects  they  differ  more  or  less 
widely;  in  methods  of  handling  the  glaze,  in  workshop  conditions, 
in  wages,  in  the  class  of  workpeople,  and  in  the  number  of  women 
emploj^ed. 

The  four  industries  studied  fall  into  two  divisions.  The  first  divi- 
sion comprises:  (1)  The  making  of  so-called  white  ware,  which  means 
sanitary  earthenware  and  table  and  toilet  ware;  (2)  The  making  of 
cheap  earthenware  bowls  and  teapots,  of  decorated  bowls,  jardinieres, 
pedestals,  spittoons,  etc.,  which  are  usually  summarized  as  art  and 
utility  ware;  and  (3)  the  making  of  lead-glazed  wall,  floor,  and  roof 
tiles;  these  three  differ  in  some  respects  but  have  many  features  in 
common.  The  second  division  comprises  the  manufacture  of  por- 
celain enameled  iron  sanitary  ware,  often  called  hollow  ware,  and 
is  quite  distinct. 

The  study  of  these  industries  has  involved  an  investigation  of  68 
potteries  and  factories  located  in  9  different  States  and  employ- 
ing in  work  which  exposes  them  to  the  risk  of  lead  poisoning  over 
2,iD0  men  and  nearly  400  women.  It  has  included  such  points  as  the 
method  of  handling  the  lead  glaze,  how  much  the  working  people  are 
exposed  to  it,  and  what  precautions  are  taken  to  protect  them.  It 
has  also  involved  a  study  of  the  people  employed,  their  living  con- 
ditions, their  nationality,  the  character  of  their  work,  and  the  inci- 
dence of  industrial  lead  poisoning  among  them. 

5 


6  BULLETIN"    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 

The  number  of  establishments  visited  in  each  of  these  industries 
and  the  number  and  sex  of  employees  engaged  in  processes  involving 
a  risk  of  lead  poisoning  were  as  follows : 

ESTABLISHMENTS  VISITED  AND  EMPLOYEES  IN  PROCESSES  EXPOSED  TO  RISK 
OF   LEAD   POISONING,   BY   INDUSTRIES,    1910   AND    1911. 


Industry. 

Estab- 
lishments 
visited. 

Male 
em- 
ployees. 

Female 

em- 
ployees. 

Total.    - 

40 
7 
11 

796 
166 
138 

150 
39 
204 

946 

205 

342 

Total 

58 
10 

1,100 
1,012 

393 

1,493 

1,012 

Total 

63 

5,112 

393 

2,505 

The  principal  centers  for  the  making  of  white  ware  in  the  United 
States  are  Trenton,  K,  J.,  and  East  Liverpool,  Ohio.  The  manufac- 
ture of  the  yellow  ware  and  Eockingham,  included  in  the  second  in- 
dustry, is  vanishing,  but  is  still  carried  on  in  East  Liverpool  and  in 
the  district  of  Ohio  of  which  Zanesville  is  the  center.  Art  and 
utility  ware  is  made  chiefly  in  the  Zanesville  district.  The  11  tile 
factories  visited  are  in  Trenton,  8T,  J.;  Newell,  W.  Va,;  Covington 
and  Newport,  Ky. ;  Indianapolis,  Ind. ;  Chicago,  111. ;  and  Zanesville, 
Ohio.  Porcelain  enameled  hollow  ware  is  made  chiefly  in  and  around 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. ;  Chicago,  111. ;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Chattanooga,  Tenn. ; 
Sheboygan,  Wis. ;  several  small  towns  in  Ohio ;  and  in  Trenton,  K  J. 

CHARACTER  OF   DANGERS  J2T  THE  INDUSTRY. 

In  the  industries  of  the  first;  group  both  men  and  women  are  em- 
ployed in  the  dangerous  processes,1  in  the  fourth  industry  men  only. 
In  the  first  three  industries  the  processes  which  involve  a  risk  of 
lead  poisoning  are:  (1)  Mixing  the  glaze,  clone  by  men;  (^dipping 
/  the  ware  in  the  glaze  or  applying  the  glaze  in  other  waysTc^ne  by 
/  both  men  and  women,  though  men  predominate;2  (3)  handling  the 
ware  while  the  glaze  is  still  wet,  clone  by  men,  women,  and  boys; 

(4)  removing  excess   glaze   from   dry  ware,   done   by   both   sexes; 

(5)  decorating  the  ware  with  lead  colors,  done  by  both  sexes;  (G) 
cleaning  or  sweeping  dusty  floors,  boards,  or'  tables,  done  by  both 
sexes.  •■- - 

In  the  fourth  industry,  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  enameled 
hollow  ware,  there  are  only  two  dangerous  processes — mixing  and 
grinding  the  ingredients  for  the  enamel  and  applying  the  enamel. 
The   former  is   clone  by  mill  hands,  usually   Slavs  but  sometimes 

1  Throughout  this  study  the  words  "  dangerous  "  and  "  risky  "  are  used  to  indicate  only 
danger  or  risk   of  lead    poisoning. 

2  In  the  making  of  white  ware  no  women  dippers  were  found,  and  in  the  second  industry 
only  one,  but  in  the  tile  potteries  they  were  employed  both  as  hand  and  as  machine 
dippers.      See  pp.  22,  25,  and  28. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  7 

Negroes.  The  application  of  the  enamel  is  skilled  work,  usually  done 
by  Americans  or  Slavs.  The  cast-iron  ware,  after  first  being  given  a 
liquid  coat,  is  heated  red  hot,  and  before  it  can  cool  powdered  enamel 
is  sprinkled  over  it  and  it  is  returned  to  the  furnace.  After  the 
enamel  has  melted  over  the  iron,  the  ware  is  taken  out  and  another 
coat  is  sprinkled  on,  this  process  being  repeated  several  times.  This 
is  extremely  dusty  work,  the  enameler  and  his  assistant  being  sur- 
rounded by  clouds  of  powdered  lead  glaze,  which  fills  the  air  and  falls 
over  their  hair  and  clothes  and  over  their  bared  arms  and  chests. 

The  degree  of  clanger  involved  in  these  various  processes  depends 
partly  on  the  amount  of  lead  used  in  the  glazes  and  partly  on  the  use 
or  neglect  of  various  methods  and  devices  for  protecting  the  workers. 
In  the  white-ware  potteries  visited  the  glazes  used  contained  from 
1.75  to  33.3  per  cent  of  raw  white  lead.  In  the  potteries  making  art 
and  utility  ware  and  in  the  tile  factories  the  glazes  contained  from  5 
to  60  per  cent  of  white  lead.  In  the  fourth  industry  it  was  difficult 
to  obtain  reliable  information  on  this  point,  but  it  is  known  that 
enamels  are  in  use  containing  from  2  up  to  25  per  cent  of  lead.1 

The  precautions  which  should  be  taken  in  establishments  using 
such  glazes  are  indicated  by  the  nature  of  the  danger.  Lead  is  a 
slowly  cumulative  poison  which  enters  the  human  system  chiefly 
through  the  digestive  tract.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  respira- 
tory tract  may  absorb  some  lead  salts,  and  lead  has  also  been  found 
to  penetrate  the  blood  vessels  of  the  lungs  and  so  to  reach  the  general 
circulation.  However,  the  greater  part  of  the  lead  which  is  breathed 
in  as  dust  is  swallowed  with  the  saliva,  thus  reaching  the  stomach, 
and  this  is  the  most  frequent  mode  of  poisoning  by  lead.  Next  in 
importance  comes  poisoning  by  lead  salts,  which  are  carried  into  the 
mouth  with  food  or  chewing  tobacco  which  has  been  handled  with 
lead-covered  fingers  or  left  exposed  in  a  room  where  there  was  lead 
dust  or  carried  in  the  pockets  of  dusty  clothes.  Absorption  of  lead 
salts  through  the  unbroken  skin  is  probably  so  little  as  to  be 
negligible. 

It  follows,  then,  that  the  prevention  of  lead  poisoning  in  a  factory 
in  which  lead  glazes  are  used  depends  upon  measures  to  prevent  dust, 
so  that  the  workman  need  not  breathe  in  lead,  and  measures  to  pro- 
vide for  personal  cleanliness,  so  that  he  will  not  convey  lead  into  his 
mouth  from  his  fingers  or  carry  it  home  on  his  body  or  clothes. 

SANITARY  CONDITION  OF  POTTERIES. 

Preventive  measures  of  both  these  kinds  were  conspicuously  absent 
in  the  establishments  investigated.  Generally  speaking,  no  effort  was 
made  to  keep  down  the  amount  of  dust  and  no  provision  made  for 
carrying  it  off  by  exhausts  or  other  mechanical  devices.     Processes 

2  See  pp.  13,  24,  26,  32,  and  33. 


8  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOB. 

which  involved  no  dust  were  carried  on  in  the  same  rooms  with  dusty 
ones,  exposing  workers  in  the  first  to  a  wholly  unnecessary  danger. 
The  construction  of  the  floors  and  the  methods  of  cleaning  added  to 
the  risk.  Hot  water,  an  absolute  necessity  for  removing  the  lead  from 
the  hands  before  eating,  was  furnished  in  but  a  few  instances,  and 
soap  and  towels  not  at  all.  Lunch  rooms  were  not  provided,  and  in 
many  instances  workers  ate  wherever  they  could  find  a  place,  regard- 
less of  whether  or  not  lead  dust  was  thick  about  them.  Wo  medical 
care  was  given  the  employees  "except  when  one  of  them  was  taken 
violently  ill  while  at  work, 

EXTENT  OF  LEAD  POISONING  AMONG  POTTERY  WORKERS. 

It  was  impossible  to  make  a  thorough  census  of  the  cases  of  lead 
poisoning  which  had  occurred  during  the  last  two  years,  but  those 
found  were  unduly  numerous  if  compared  with  the  number  of  cases 
known  to  occur  in  British  establishments  of  the  same  kind.  Com- 
pared with  British  potteries,  American  potteries,  with  less  than  one- 
half  the  work  people,  show  almost  twice  as  many  cases  of  lead 
poisoning.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  an  enormous  decline  in  this 
form  of  industrial  poisoning  in  England,  due  to  sanitary  regulation, 
while  in  this  country  there  is  an  almost  entire  absence  of  such  regula- 
tion. If  American  wages  are  higher  and  living  conditions  better, 
these  advantages  seem  to  be  more  than  offset  by  the  lack  of  sanitary 
control  and  of  proper  regulations  for  the  protection  of  the  workers. 

Among  the  796  men  in  the  white-ware  potteries  60  cases  of  lead 
poisoning  were  found  to  have  occurred  during  the  two  years  1910  and 
1911,  39  of  which  occurred  during  the  latter  year.  Among  the  150 
women  there  were  43  cases,  29  of  them  occurring  during  1911.  A 
single  local  of  the  Dippers'  Union,  which  gave  accurate  records  of 
85  men  for  one  year,  showed  that  13  had  acute  lead  poisoning  during 
that  year. 

In  the  potteries  making  art  and  utility  ware  and  in  the  tile  fac- 
tories poisoning  was  more  common.  Among  the  304  men  employed 
63  cases  of  poisoning  were  found  to  have  occurred  in  1910  and  1911, 
of  which  48  occurred  in  the  latter  year.  Among  the  243  women  35 
cases  were  attributed  to  the  two  years,  28  of  which  had  occurred 
in  1911. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  men  employed  in  the  white-ware  pot- 
teries showed  in  1911  one  case  of  poisoning  for  eA7ery  20  to  21  em- 
ployees, while  those  employed  in  the  art  potteries  and  tile  factories 
showed  in  the  same  year  1  case  of  poisoning  for  every  6  or  7  workers. 
Probably  this  difference  is  due  in  part  to  the  smaller  amount  of  lead 
in  the  glazes  used  and  partly  also  to  the  fact  that  the  white-ware 
male  potters  are  very  well  paid,  and  therefore  well  fed  and  well 
housed.  The  art  potters  and  tile  workers  have  the  disadvantage  of 
low  wages,  with  all  that  that  implies. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTEEIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  .  9 

The  women  in  the  white-ware  potteries  suffer  more  in  proportion 
to  their  number  than  do  those  in  art  potteries  and  tile  works.  This 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  all  the  women  in  the  glaze  departments 
of  white-ware  potteries  are  doing  dangerous  work,  while  in  the  tile 
factories  many  women  are  engaged  in  the  comparatively  safe  work  of 
placing  glazed  ware  in  receptacles  to  be  fired.  All  of  these  women  in 
white-ware  potteries,  as  well  as  in  tile  works  and  art  potteries,  earn 
low  wages  and  are  often  poorly  fed  and  housed. 

Taking  all  the  men  and  women  employed  in  these  three  industries, 
it  was  found  that  among  the  1,100  men  there  were  87  cases  of  lead 
poisoning  in  a  single  year,  or  1  for  every  12  or  13  employed,  and 
among  the  393  women  57  cases,  or  1  for  every  7  employed. 

In  the  fourth  industry,  the  porcelain  enameling  of  iron  hollow 
ware,  309  cases  of  lead  poisoning  were  found  to  have  occurred,  in  the 
10  factories  studied  within  two  years'  time.  One  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven  cases  occurring  in  1911  were  either  reported  by  physicians,  ob- 
tained from  hospital  records,  or  discovered  by  personal  examination 
of  workers.1  One  hundred  and  forty-eight  enamelers  and  mill  hands 
were  examined,  and  54,  or  36  per  cent,  were  found  to  be  suffering 
from  chronic  lead  poisoning. 

SYMPTOMS   AND   PPOGEESS   OP   LEAD   POISONING. 

When  a  person  is  exposed  to  lead-laden  dust  or  habitually  eats  his 
food  with  lead-soiled  hands" the  poison  accumulates  in  his  system  and 
usually  attacks  first  the  digestive  tract  and  the  blood.  He  acquires  a 
peculiar  Trailer,  which  foremen  and  workmen  soon  learn  to  recognize, 
and  which  is  caused  partly  by  poverty  of  the  blood,  partly  by  con- 
traction of  the  surface  blood  vessels.  He  begins  to  lose  his  appetite, 
especially  for  breakfast,  for  he  is  apt  to  get  up  with  a  foul  month 
and  to  vomit  if  he  tries  to  eat  solid  food.  A  peculiarly  disagreeable, 
sweetislrtaste  is  one  of  the  early  symptoms  and  increases  the  man's 
repugnance  to  .food.  Then  he  begins  to  lose  strength  and  to  hare 
headache  and  pains  in  his  limbsr  He  is  almost  always  constipated, 
and  this  trouble  increases  till  it  may  culminate  in  an  attack  oFago- 
nizing  colic  with  complete  stoppage  of  the  bowels.  This  so-ca'lled 
lead  colic  is  what  the  men  themselves  and  niany  physicians  recognize 
under  the  head  of  acute  lead  poisoning,  although  a  man  is  usually 
poisoned  for  some  time  before  it  comes  on  and  may  be  severely 
poisoned  without  ever  having  colic. 

If  the  victim  of  acute  lead  colic  leaves  his  occupation  for  a  more 
healthful  one  he  may  recover  completely  from  the  effects  of  the 
lead,  though  there  are  authorities  who  insist  that  even  one  attack 
leaves  permanent  changes  in  the  blood  vessels  and  in  the  liver.  But 
if  the  man  goes  back  to  the  same  work  he  develops  the  chronic  form 
of  lead  poisoning,  with  perhaps  recurrent  attacks  of  colic.     Chronic 

1  30  cases  reported  by  workers  are  not  counted  here  ;  see  p.  59. 


10  BULLETIN"    OF   THE  BUREAU   OE   LABOE. 

lead  poisoning  is  essentially  a  disease  of  the  blood  vessels,  leading  to 
degeneration  of  the  organs,  to  atrophy  of  the  digestive  glands,  har- 
dening of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  derangement  of  the  heart,  and  pre- 
mature senility. 

With  either  the  acute  or  the  chronic  form  there  may  be  involve- 
ment of  the  nervous  system.  If  the  poison  attacks  the  nerves  and 
spinal  cord  only,  paralysis  comes  on,  most  commonly  m  arms  and 
wrists,  sometimes  in  shoulders  and  legs,  sometimes  general.' — if  it 
attacks  the  brain,  there  is  headache,  dizziness,  disturbances  of  sight, 
less  of  consciousness,  or  convulsions,  which  may  be  fatal,  or  may  end 
m  more  or- less  lasting  insanity.  !  araiysis  is  more  common  m  men, 
convulsions  in  women. 

TYPICAL   CASES   OF  IEAD  POISONING. 

The  history  of  a  few  typical  cases  may  serve  to  illustrate  this 
description : 

Case  1. — Tlii"  is  a  typical  case  of  mild  chronic  lead  poisoning.  A  girl  of  19 
years  lias  worked  3  years  in  the  dipping  room  of  a  white-ware  pottery,  during 
which  time  .she  has  had  two  attacks  of  colic.  She  is  pale  and  has  not  much 
strength,  partly,  her  mother  thinks,  because  she  eats  so  little.  She  is  very 
apt  to  vomit  in  the  morning  if  she  takes  breakfast,  and  can  eat  nothing  at 
any  meal  till  she  has  had  a  sour  pickle  to  rid  her  mouth  of  the  sweet  taste. 
She  is  always  constipated  and  takes  cathartics  regularly.  She  is  not  allowed 
to  go  into  the  biscuit  warehouse  to  eat  her  lunch,  because  the  forewoman  objects, 
so  she  eats  in  the  dipping  room  after  washing  her  hands  in  cold  water.  She 
comes  home  with  her  skirts  full  of  glaze  dust,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
get  rid  of  it. 

Case  2. — This  is  another  instance  of  chronic  lead  poisoning  hi  a  woman. 
She  has  worked  for  10  years  scraping  and  blowing  glaze  from  the  edges  of 
dipped  tiles ;  she  has  never  had  colic,  but  she  has  grown  very  nervous  and  has 
had  repeated  attacks  of  dizziness  and  loss  of  consciousness,  so  that  a  .doctor 
would  have  to  be  summoned  and  she  would  be  carried  home.  She  was  trans- 
ferred to  another  department  in  the  tile  works,  but  she  did  not  like  it,  and  left 
to  enter  the  glaze  room  of  another  factory,  where  she  soon  had  an  attack  of 
unconsciousness  so  alarming  that  she  was  discharged  and  not  allowed  to 
return.  She  is  pale,  thin,  tremulous,  and  so  excessively  irritable  and  excitable 
that  her  family  treat  her  as  if  she  were  not  quite  sound  mentally.  This  woman 
will  undoubtedly  have  cerebral  lead  poisoning  of  a  serious  type  if  she  returns 
to  this  work. 

Case  8. — This  woman  had  severe  cerebral  lead  poisoning.  She  was  em- 
ployed for  six  years  dipping  and  scraping  tiles;  she  was  always  a  nervous 
girl  and  grew  increasingly  so,  suffering  from  bad  attacks  of  dizziness  and 
fainting.  One  morning  she  awoke  to  find  both  legs  paralyzed.  After  some 
weeks  she  recovered  and  went  back  to  work,  but  only  for  a  week,  for  she 
fainted  away,  and  when  she  came  to,  both  arms  and  legs  were  paralyzed,  her 
memory  was  impaired,  and  she  was  confused  and  very  irritable  and  at  times 
had  hallucinations  of  sight.  She  lived  on  in  this  condition  for  seven  years, 
with  occasional  periods  of  improvement  followed  by  relapses,  and  then  died. 

Case  If — Mild  chrome  lead  poisoning.  He  has  been  a  dipper  for  10  years 
in  a  white-ware  jpottery ;  has  never  had  colic  but  has  grown  excessively  pale. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  11 

so  that  it  is  very  noticeable.  He  walks  slowly  and  likes  to  stop  and  rest 
every  now  and  then ;  has  no  appetite,  has  lost  weight,  and  has  lost  his  spirits, 
so  that  he  seems  like  a  tired  old  man,  though  he  is  only  a  little  over  30. 

Case  5. — An  instance  of  an  unusually  susceptible  man.  He  went  to  the  hos- 
pital with  lead  colic,  after  working  as  an  enameler's  helper  only  three  days. 

Case  6. — A  Slav,  37  years  old,  with  a  wife  and  five  children  to  support.  He 
is  paying  for  his  house.  He  used  to  be  so  strong  that  he  could  run  up  the 
hill  on  which  his  house  stands,  after  work,  and  spend  all  the  evening  digging 
in  his  garden.  JS'ow  he  climbs  up  like  an  old  man  and  sinks  exhausted  in  a  chair 
and  if  he  tries  to  hoe  or  rake  he  has  to  give  it  up,  he  is  so  weary.  He  worked 
for  two  years  as  helper  in  a  porcelain  enameling  factory  and  six  years  as  an 
enamel er.  It  was  four  years  before  he  began  to  get  sick,  then  his  digestion 
failed,  his  mouth  was  foul,  he  could  not  eat.  He  has  had  frequent  attacks  of 
colic  and  his  doctor  tells  him  he  must  leave  the  work,  but  he  can  not  support 
his  family  and  pay  for  his  house  on  laborer's  wages  even  if  he  could  find  the 
work.  Lately  they  have  put  him  on  a  double  furnace  and  he  has  to  work 
half  again  as  hard  and  he  does  not  know  how  long  he  can  hold  out.  He  has  no 
appetite  and  can  not  digest  his  food,  he  is  pale  and  emaciated,  with  anxious 
eyes.  He  used  to  be  gentle  and  even  tempered,  but  now  he  "  gets  mad  at  any- 
thing," which  makes  him  ashamed  but  he  does  not  seem  able  to  help  it. 

Case  7. — A  white-haired  old  man,  apparently  over  TO  years  old,  weak  and 
trembling,  unable  to  dress  himself,  tottering  when  he  walks.  He  is  confused 
and  bewildered,  and  can  not  find  the  right  word  when  he  tries  to  talk.  Actually 
he  is  only  46  years  old.  For  28  years  he  has  worked  in  the  colored  dipping 
room  of  a  tile  factory.  It  is  more  than  10  years  since  he  began  to  feel  the 
effects  of  the  glaze  seriously.  It  took  the  form  of  general  hardening  of  the 
blood  vessels,  and  a  few  weeks  ago  he  had  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  with  partial 
paralysis  and  aphasia.  His  physician  does  not  believe  that  he  will  ever  work 
again. 

Case  8. — A  Croatian  who  has  enameled  sinks  and  bathtubs  for  about  10 
years.  Two  years  ago  he  began  to  lose  strength  in  his  arms,  especially  the 
right  arm.  He  stopped  work  awhile  and  improved,  then  lie  went  back  and 
grew  much  worse ;  his  arms  were  almost  completely  paralyzed,  and  he  had  to 
be  dressed  and  fed  like  a  baby.  After  six  months  he  regained  the  use  of  his 
left  hand,  but  his  right  arm  is  strongly  bent  and  he  can  not  straighten  it. 
He  is  deep  in  debt  and  is  trying  for  a  job  as  yard  laborer  in  the  factory  where 
he  used  to  enamel,  but  with  only  one  arm  he  has  not  much  hope  of  being 
employed. 

Ca.se  9. — Involvement  of  the  central  nervous  system.  This  man  is  a  strong 
young  Slav  who  worked  for  five  months  pouring  glaze  over  roof  tiles.  Then 
he  began  to  feel  sick,  had  a  bad  taste  and  nausea,  could  not  eat,  felt  weak  and 
"no  good."  This  lasted  eight  weeks.  Then  one  day,  just  as  he  had  reached 
home  after  work,  an  attack  of  colic  came  on,  so  violent  that  he  lost  conscious- 
ness. He  was  in  maniacal  delirium  for  48  hours,  apparently  in  great  paia 
much  of  the  time.  This  passed  over,  and  after  a  period  of  mental  confusion 
and  impaired  vision,  lasting  about  two  weeks,  he  regained  his  normal  state. 
When  he  was  seen  three  months  later  he  was  pale  and  had  not  yet  recovered 
his  strength. 

Case  10. — A  young  American  who  had  worked  two  years  as  an  enameler. 
He  had  several  mild  attacks  of  lead  colic  and  then  one  so  severe  that  the 
doctors  were  unable  to  control  the  pain:  he  became  delirious,  and  during  an 
unguarded  moment  he  took  a  fatal  dose  of  the  morphine  which  had  been  left 
beside  him,  and  died. 


12  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LAB  OK. 

GLAZING  AND    DECORATING    OF    WHITE    WARE,    ART    AND     UTILITY 

WARE,  AND  TILES. 

GLAZING  AND   DECORATING   OF   POTTERY   IN   GENERAL. 

The  occupations  which  expose  the  worker  to  the  danger  of  lead 
poisoning — mixing  the  glaze,  applying  it  to  the  ware,  removing  the 
excess  of  glaze  from  the  foot  of  the  ware,  handling  the  ware  while 
the  glaze  is  still  wet,  decorating  the  fired  ware  by  tinting,  ground 
laying,  or  hand  painting,  and,  finally,  sweeping  the  rooms  in  which 
the  glaze  has  been  handled — are  not  carried  on  in  exactly  the  same 
way  in  all  potteries.  Different  ware  requires  different  handling, 
and  there  are  also  local  peculiarities  which  demand  different  dis- 
tribution of  certain  tasks,  so  that  the  same  class  of  workers  are  sub- 
jected to  different  conditions  in  different  places. 

The  following  description  applies  to  the  making  of  general  white 
ware;  that  is,  table  and  toilet  ware  and  sanitary  earthenware.  It 
also  applies  in  general  to  the  making  of  yellow  ware  and  Rocking- 
ham, of  so-called  art  and  utility  pottery,  and  the  making  of  glazed 
tiles.  Special  processes  used  in  the  art  potteries  and  in  tile  works 
which  differ  from  those  in  white-ware  potteries  will  be  described 
separately. 

COMPOSITION   OF   GLAZES. 

Since  glazes  are  used  in  making  pottery  of  every  kind,  and  since 
the  danger  of  all  the  processes  referred  to  depends  largely  upon  the 
amount  of  lead  in  the  glaze  used,  it  seems  desirable  to  consider  the 
composition  of  glazes  before  describing  the  processes  in  which  the 
-workers  handle  them  or  are  exposed  to  glaze  dusts. 

The  glaze  used  in  general-ware  potteries  in  this  county  for  table 
and  toilet  ware  always  contains  lead,  no  ware  of  this  kind  being 
made  in  the  United  States  with  leadless  glaze.  Sanitary  earthen- 
ware is  made  partly  with  a  lead  glaze,  partly  with  a  leadless  glaze. 
The  smaller  sanitary  ware,  such  as  basins,  lavatories,  closets,  sinks, 
etc.,  is,  like  most  earthenware,  first  fired,  then  dipped  in  a  lead  glaze 
and  fired  again.  The  larger  ware — bathtubs,  laundry  tubs,  sitz  baths, 
urinals,  etc. — is  fired  only  once.  The  glaze  is  painted  on  the  raw  clay, 
and  then  the  ware  is  subjected  to  a  single  prolonged  firing,  which 
biscuits  the  clay  and  fuses  the  glaze.  Owing  to  the  long  firing  at  a 
great  heat,  lead  is  not  needed  in  this  glaze  and  only  a  small  per- 
centage, if  any,  is  added.  The  glaze  used  for  cheap  earthenware, 
known  as  yellow  ware  and  Rockingham,  is  very  rich  in  lead;  so  is 
that  used  in  decorated  ware  known  as  art  pottery  and  also  the  glaze 
used  on  colored  wall  and  floor  tiles  and,  in  some  instances,  on  colored 
roof  tiles.  The  glaze  used  on  white  tiles  often  contains  small  quan- 
tities only  of  lead. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE    WORKS,   ETC. 


13 


There  has  been  much  discussion  in  England  and  in  European 
countries  over  "  fritted  lead  glazes  " ;  that  is,  glazes  made  by  adding 
the  lead  to  the  glaze-forming  constituents  and  fusing  them  together, 
in  the  course  of  which  fusion  the  lead  is,  at  least  in  part,  changed  to 
an  insoluble  silicate.  Such  glazes  are  looked  upon  as  very  much  less 
harmful  than  raw  glazes.  This  question  has  not  apparently  been  con- 
sidered in  the  United  States  up  to  the  present  time,  for  lead-fritted 
glazes  are  not  used  in  our  potteries  at  all,  so  far  as  could  be  ascer- 
tained, except  in  one  tile  pottery,  where  part  of  the  lead  is  fritted. 
Our  glazes  are  subjected  to  a  fritting  process;  but  the  lead,  usually 
white  lead,  more  rarely  red  lead,  is  added  after  the  fritting  is  over. 

The  glaze  with  the  smallest  percentage  of  lead  is  that  used  for 
large  sanitary  ware,  when  a  lead  glaze  is  used  at  all,  for  much  of  it 
is  made  without  lead.  That  used  for  smaller  sanitary  ware  has 
usually  less  than  the  glaze  used  for  table  and  toilet  ware.  The 
largest  percentage  is  used  for  colored  tiles,  for  Rockingham  and 
yellow  ware,  and  for  certain  kinds  of  art  pottery  and  majolica,  for 
this  ware  is  fired  at  a  low  heat  to  prevent  alteration  of  the  colors. 

Forty  white-ware  potteries  were  visited,  and  in  39  of  them  state- 
ments were  obtained  from  the  officials  as  to  the  amount  of  lead  in  the 
glaze  used.  In  three  of  these  potteries  yellow  ware  and  Eockingham 
were  also  manufactured;  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  glazes  used  for 
them  never  contained  under  20  per  cent  of  lead.  The  officials  of 
nine  of  the  tile  works  visited  gave  similar  information  concerning 
their  glazes.  In  four  of  these  tile  works  two  kinds  of  glaze  were 
used,  one  for  white  and  one  for  colored  tiles.  The  following  table, 
based  on  the  information  thus  obtained,  gives  the  percentage  of  lead 
in  the  various  glazes : 

NUMBER   OF   ESTABLISHMENTS   USING    GLAZE   CONTAINING   EACH   CLASSIFIED 

AMOUNT   OF   LEAD. 


White 

ware. 

Yellow 
ware. 

Art 
ware. 

Tile 
works. 

Classified  amount  of  lead  in  glaze  used. 

Sanitary 
ware. 

General 
ware. 

Under  5  per  cent 

3 
2 
2 
2 

5  and  under  10  per  cent 

3 

3 

2  23 

1  2 

10  and  under  15  per  cent 

15  and  under  20  per  cent 

3 

20  and  under  30  per  cent 

32 

44 

30  and  under  40  per  cent 

1 

2 
2 

2 

40  and  under  50  per  cent 

5  1 

2   1 

54 



Total 

9 

6  30 

3 

7 

7  13 

1  For  white  tiles  only. 

2  In  some  of  them  the  amount  was  said  to  be  "  about  20  per  cent.' 
a  little  over. 

3  Red  and  white  lead. 
*Red  lead. 

5  For  .colored  work  only. 

6  Not  including  one  manufacturer  wbo  refused  information. 

7  Four  works  use  2  different  glazes  ;  2  refused  information. 


So  it  may  have  been 


14  BULLETIN"   OF  THE  BUREAU    OE    LABOE. 

These  figures  are  not  exactly  comparable  with  those  in  the  British 
reports.1  because  they  represent  the  amount  of  white  or  red  lead 
originally  added  to  the  glaze,  while  the  English  figures  represent  the 
amount  of  soluble  lead  found  in  the  finished  glaze. 

GLAZING  AND  DECORATING  OF  WHITE  WARE. 

DESCRIPTION  OE  PROCESSES. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  term  "  white  ware  "  includes  table  ware, 
toilet  ware,  and  sanitary  earthenware.  Forty  white-ware  potteries 
were  visited  in  Trenton  and  in  the  East  Liverpool  district  in  Ohio. 
In  these  potteries  the  glaze  is  mixed  by  or  under  the  supervision  of  a 
skilled  man  who  knows  what  he  is  handling ;  it  is  ground  and  sifted 
by  laborers  who  are  often  ignorant  and  unable  to  speak  English. 

The  dangers  in  the  mixing  room  come  from  shoveling,  weighing^ 
and  carrying  the  white  or  red  lead  that  goes  into  the  glaze  and  from 
grinding  and  sifting  the  glaze.  This  work  is  done  by  men  who  often 
do  not  know  one  powder  from  another  and  may  be  quite  unaware 
that  there  is  any  risk  involved.  The  list  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
given  further  on  shows  that  these  men  are  not  protected  from  the 
dangers  of  mixing  glaze. 

The  liquid  glaze  is  applied  to  the  ware  by  dippers  who  are  highly 
skilled  English-speaking  men.  The  clipped  ware  is  finished — that  is, 
rid  of  any  excess  of  glaze — by  dippers'  helpers.  In  the  sanitary-ware 
potteries  these  are  young  men  who  must  be  strong  enough  to  lift  the 
heavy  ware,  and  who  clean  it  by  wiping  off  the  glaze  with  a  wet 
sponge.  In  the  Trenton  general-ware  potteries  the  helpers  are 
usually  boys  of  14  years  and  over,  more  rarely  women  and  young  girls. 
They  simply  stack  the  ware  on  boards  and  carry  it  to  the  kiln  room, 
where  it  is  finished  by  the  kiln  men,  who  rub  off  the  dry  glaze  on 
aprons  or  bands  of  muslin.  In  the  East  Liverpool  potteries  the 
helpers  are  all  women  and  girls,  who  have  to  clean  the  ware,  usually 
with  a  sponge,  but  sometimes  by  rubbing  off  the  glaze  after  it  is  dry. 
They  also  gather  up  the  dry  glazed  ware  and  pile  it  on  boards  for 
ihe  kiln  men  to  carry  off.  The  kiln  men  in  East  Liverpool  and  the 
sanitary  men  in  Trenton  do  no  finishing;  they  only  place  the  glazed 
ware  in  saggers  to  be  fired. 

The  dipping  or  glaze  room  is  dangerous  because  the  floor  is  dusty 
from  glaze  which  has  been  splashed  over  it,  and  because  glaze  dust 
rises  from  the  dried  ware  as  it  is  stacked  up  and  put  on  shelves 
and  as  it  is  taken  down  and  carried  away.  Dust  also  rises  when 
small   ware   is   finished  by   dry   rubbing.     The  giost-kiln    room  -   is 

1  Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  and  Workshops  for  the  year  3010, 
pp.  174,  175. 

2  A  glost  kiln  is  one  in  which  glazed  ware  Is  fired,  the  biscuit  kiln  being  used  for  the 
ware  before  it  receives  the  glaze. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE    WORKS,    ETC.  15 

fairly  clean  in  potteries  in  which  wet  finishing  is  done  by  the  clippers' 
helpers  in  the  glaze  room,  but  there  is  always  some  glaze  dust  rubbed 
off  or  blown  off  while  the  ware  is  being  placed  in  the  saggers.  In 
the  Trenton  white-ware  potteries  there  is  a  great  deal  of  glaze  dust 
in  the  kiln  rooms,  because  the  glost-kiln  men  finish  the  dry,  glazed 
ware  here. 

These  processes  belong  to  the  glaze  department.  There  is  another 
department  in  general-ware  potteries  where  lead  salts  are  used — 
the  decorating  department.  The  danger  of  lead  poisoning  in  this 
department  is  much  less  than  was  formerly  the  case,  because  print- 
ing and  decalcomania  have  largely  displaced  the  processes  of  dry- 
color  dusting,  known  as  ground  laying,  and  of  color  blowing,  known 
as  tinting. 

MIXING. 

Mixing  is  usually  done  by  a  foreman  who  is  acquainted  with  the 
substances  he  uses  and  who  hands  over  to  a  laborer  for  melting  and 
grinding  the  ingredients  he  has  mixed.  In  other  places  a  laborer 
does  the  mixing,  the  ingredients  being  numbered  only,  so  that  he 
does  not  know  what  he  is  handling,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  his  be- 
traying the  formula.  The  materials  used  in  making  the  first  stage 
of  the  glaze,  which  is  known  as  the  frit,  may  or  may  not  contain 
a  little  white  lead,  but  even  if  it  does,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the 
white  lead  is  added  during  the  second  stage,  after  the  fritting  is 
over.  The  first  stage  consists  in  melting  the  mixture  of  borates  and 
silicates,  with  perhaps  some  white  lead,  till  it  is  a  fluid  mass,  which 
is  then  run  into  water,  where  it  scatters  and  hardens  quickly  in 
feathery  masses.  This,  the  so-called  frit,  is  then  ground  to  a  powder. 
Whatever  lead  there  is  in  the  mixture  is  said  to  have  been  changed 
to  a  comparatively  harmless  form,  lead  disilicate,  but  the  invariable 
custom  in  all  the  potteries  visited  is  to  add  white  lead  to  this  frit. 

Therefore,  when  a  fritted  glaze  is  spoken  of  by  an  American  pot- 
ter, it  must  be  remembered  that  the  one  poisonous  ingredient,  the 
lead,  has  been  either  not  at  all  changed  hy  the  fritting,  or  only  in 
part.  The  ground  frit,  to  which  white  lead  and  other  ingredients 
have  been  added,  'is  again  ground  in  water  mills  and  is  then  filtered 
through  silk  sieves  and,  suspended  in  water,  is  now  ready  for  use 
by  the  dippers. 

During  the  preparation  of  the  glaze  the  men  exposed  to  lead  are 
the  mixer  and  one  or  two  laborers,  who  help  mix  and  who  convey 
and  dump  the  mixture.  As  the  grinding  is  done  in  water  mills,  no 
dust  is  produced,  and  the  process  is  not  attended  with  risk.  If  ordi- 
nary care  is  observed,  the  work  of  the  mixer  and  his  helper  can  be 
rendered  safe,  and  it  is  in  any  case  only  occasional  work,  done  per- 
haps twice  a  week,  for  a  large  quantity  of  glaze  can  be  prepared  at 


16  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF   LABOR. 

one  time.  If  it  is  carelessly  done,  the  workman  may,  of  course,  be 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  breathing  lead  dust.  In  many  potteries  the 
laborer  engaged  in  mixing  may  be  any  one  of  several  unskilled  men 
("  odd  men  "  they  are  called),  so  that  no  one  man  handles  the  white 
lead  often. 

DIPPING. 

The  dipping  of  ware  is  highly  skilled  work  and  consists  in  rapidly 
immersing  the  biscuit  ware  in  the  liquid  glaze,  turning  it,  and  bring- 
ing it  out  in  such  a  way  that  the  coat  of  glaze  is  evenly  distributed 
all  over  the  surface.  The  glazed  ware  is  placed  on  a  board  or  tray  to 
dry  and  later  on  is  carried  to  the  glost  kiln  for  firing.  The  dipper 
works  with  his  sleeves  rolled  up  to  the  shoulders.  His  arms  are  cov- 
ered with  the  glaze  and  his  clothes  are  splashed  with  it.  The  floor 
around  the  dipping  tub  is  covered  with  splashed  and  spilt  glaze. 
This  dries  and  is  constantly  stirred  up  by  the  feet  of  the  helpers  as 
they  come  and  go,  and  several  dippers  have  spoken  of  this  dust  as 
being,  in  their  opinion,  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  lead 
poisoning  among  dippers.  In  Trenton  there  is,  except  for  this,  little 
production  of  dust  in  the  dipping  room,  and  were  the  floor  of  cement 
or  metal  and  kept  slightly  damp  all  dust  could  be  abolished  except  the 
small  amount  that  is  caused  by  lifting  and  carrying  away  the  tray 
of  glazed  pottery.  As  will  be  seen  later,  conditions  are  not  so  good 
in  the  clipping  rooms  in  East  Liverpool. 

Dipping  rooms  are  necessarily  well  lighted  and  are  usually  fairly 
clean,  except  for  the  floor,  which  is  almost  always  of  rough,  worn 
boards,  white  with  the  accumulated  glaze  of  years.  These  floors 
are  swept  after  work  hours,  in  East  Liverpool  by  the  dippers'  helpers, 
in  Trenton  usually  by  laborers,  but  apparently  they  are  never  really 
cleaned.  .Dippers  always  wear  overalls,  fully  protecting  their  under- 
clothing, and  they  leave  them  behind  when  they  go  home.  A  dipper 
leaving  work  in  the  afternoon  is,  as  far  as  one  can  see,  quite  free  from 
white-lead  dust  on  his  clothing  and  person.  However,  at  the  noon 
hour  he  is  not  so  scrupulous.  If  he  does  not  go  home  for  lunch,  he 
may  go  to  a  neighboring  eating  place  in  his  overalls,  or  he  may  eat 
in  the  yard  of  the  factory.  In  winter  he  often  takes  his  lunch  in  the 
dipping  room.  Besides  this,  his  mid-morning  lunch,  which  is  still 
customary  in  many  potteries,  is  always  eaten  in  the  workroom,  and 
some  dippers  admit  that  they  do  not  bother  to  wash  their  hands  thor- 
oughly before  eating,  being  content  to  rinse  them  off  in  a  pail  of  cold 
water.     Other  men,  however,  are  scrupulously  careful  in  this  respect. 

WORK  OF  DIPPERS'  HELPERS. 

Working  with  the  dippers  are  the  dippers'  helpers,  who  sponge  or 
clean  the  ware  to  get  rid  of  the  glaze  on  the  foot,  stack  the  ware  on 
boards  or  trays,  and,  in  Trenton,  carry  it  to  the  glost  kiln  for  firing. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  17 

Sanitary  ware  is  large  and  heavy  and  the  dippers'  helpers  in  these 
potteries  must  be  well-grown  boys  or  men.  In  general  ware  potteries, 
where  the  pieces  are  smaller,  the  helpers  are  girls,  women,  or  boys. 

In  Trenton  the  dippers'  helpers  are  exposed  to  no  more  danger 
than  are  the  dippers,  except  for  what  is  involved  in  lifting  and 
carrying  the  glazed  ware  to  the  kilns.  Large  pieces  of  sanitary  ware 
are  carried  one  by  one  on  the  helper's  shoulder  or  head.  The  small 
pieces  of  general  ware  are  piled  up  on  boards  and  these  boards  are 
carried  on  the  shoulder  or  head.  The  boards  are  white  with  glaze 
dust,  and  as  the  small  ware  dries  quickly,  the  dust  flies  over  the 
helper  as  he  walks,  and  boys  often  show  deposits  of  white  dust  on 
their  hair  and  faces  and  in  their  nostrils. 

Conditions  in  the  clipping  rooms  are  distinctly  better  in  Trenton 
than  in  East  Liverpool.  In  the  former  field  it  is  the  custom  to  em- 
ploy boys  as  dippers'  helpers.  These  boys  carry  the  dipped  ware, 
general  ware,  to  the  glost  kiln  as  soon  as  a  tray  is  full.  Then  it  is 
left  for  the  glost-kiln  men  to  do  the  "  smoothing,"  or  "  rubbing  off," 
or  "  finishing,"  which  means  removing  the  excess  of  glaze  from  the 
foot  of  the  ware.  In  sanitary  ware  potteries  the  dippers'  helpers 
do  this  work,  but  they  use  a  wet  sponge  and  do  the  finishing  before 
the  ware  is  dry,  so  no  dust  is  produced. 

In  East  Liverpool,  on  the  other  hand,  the  glost-kiln  men  do  no 
finishing'  at  all  and  this  work  falls  to  the  dippers'  helpers,  who  in  this 
field  are  all  women  or  girls.  These  helpers  are  known  as  "  takers- 
off  "  and  "  gatherers."  The  taker-off  stands  right  in  front  of  the 
dipper,  with  the  drain  board,  on  which  the  dipped  ware  is  placed, 
between  them.  If  the  dipper  is  fairly  careful,  his  helper  can  keep 
quite  clean,  but  many  dippers  scatter  the  glaze  badly  b}^  shaking  the 
ware  as  they  bring  it  out,  and  girls  are  often  splashed  with  glaze 
from  head  to  foot.  They  wear  caps  to  protect  their  hair,  sometimes, 
but  they  can  not  protect  their  faces.  The  taker-off  sponges  the"  foot 
of  the  dipped  ware  and  then  places  it  carefully  on  boards  to  dry. 

The  gatherer  piles  together  the  glazed  and  sponged  ware  after  it  is 
dry  and  places  the  piles  on  boards  for  the  glost-kiln  men  to  carry 
away.  This  gatherer  has  a  much  dustier  task  than  has  the  sponger, 
but  as  the  work  is  arranged  in  most  dipping  rooms  all  the  people  in 
the  room  are  exposed  to  the  dust  raised  by  any  one  of  them. 

The  smallest  ware,  the  individual  butter  plates,  can  not  be  sponged 
as  the  other  ware  is,  because  the  pieces  are  so  light  that  each  one 
would  have  to  be  held  in  place  or  it  would  be  pushed  about  by  the 
sponge.  Therefore  these  pieces  have  to  be  finished  dry  by  the  kiln 
men  in  Trenton,  by  the  takers-off  and  gatherers  in  East  Liverpool. 
The  girls  wait  until  a  large  number  of  butter  plates  have  accumulated 
and  then  rub  them,  bottom  side  down,  on  a  piece  of  rough  flannel  or 
55884°— 12— —2 


18  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU   OF    LABOB. 

carpet  tucked  to  a  board.  Sometimes  only  the  gatherer  does  this, 
sometimes  both  girls.  Usually  the  work-  does  not  need  to  be  done 
every  day.     It  is  looked  upon  as  dangerous  because  it  is  so  very  dusty. 

These  girls  also  clean  the  boards  on  which  the  dipped  ware  is 
carried.  Usually  they  do  it  by  sponging,  but  sometimes  a  girl  pounds 
the  board  against  the  floor  or  wail  to  shake  the  dust  off.  The  clean- 
ing of  the  glaze  room  is  also  the  work  of  these  girls,  and  is  danger- 
ous or  not  according  to  the  care  with  which  it  is  done.  Some  dip- 
pers are  very  particular  to  make  the  girls  wet  the  floor  thoroughly 
before  sweeping  and  will  not  allow  them  to  begin  till  the  day's  work 
is  over.  Others  are  indifferent  and  let  the  girls  sweep  any  time 
they  choose,  perhaps  during  the  noon  hour,  and  they  admit  that  the 
sprinkling  of  the  floor  is  done  perfunctorily.  The  girls  bring  their 
mid-morning  lunch  to  the  dipping  room  and  eat  it  there,  though  they 
prefer  to  go  into  the  biscuit  room  to  eat.  They  always  eat  in  their 
dipping  clothes,  and  it  is  common  talk  that  the  girls  are  careless 
about  Trashing  their  hands  before  lunch,  but  this  is  perhaps  not  to 
be  wondered  at  inasmuch  as  it  is  exceptional  to  find  in  any  factory 
provision  for  washing  except  with  cold  water. 

The  presence  of  these  girl  helpers  is  said  by  the  dippers  to  be  a 
distinct  disadvantage,  not  only  to  themselves  but  to  the  men  work- 
ing in  the  room,  for  they  stir  up  so  much  glaze  dust  with  their  skirts 
as  they  pass  to  and  fro  over  the  floor.  The  mother  of  one  of  these 
girls  said  that  she  could  always  shake  glaze  dust  from  her  daughter's 
skirt  and  petticoat  when  she  came  home. 

WORK   OF   GLOST-KIEX    3IEX. 

In  the  sanitary-ware  potteries  of  Trenton,  and  in  the  general-ware 
potteries  of  East  Liverpool,  the  glost-kiln  men  simply  place  the 
glazed  ware  in  saggers,  and  therefore  the  only  exposure  to  lead  comes 
from  getting  their  hands  smeared  with  the  glaze.  But  in  the  gen- 
eral-ware potteries  of  Trenton  the  glost-kiln  men  must  take  up  each 
piece  and  smooth  or  finish  it  by  rubbing  off  the  excess  of  glaze  from 
the  foot  of  the  ware  on  a  sort  of  band,  or  apron,  of  rough  muslin 
which  they  wear  around  the  waist  for  this  purpose.  This  apron  soon 
becomes  filled  with  dust,  and  the  air  around  the  glost  kiln  where  this 
work  is  done  is  always  contaminated  with  lead  dust.  The  men  them- 
selves recognize  that  this  is  dangerous  and  that  wet  finishing  is  bet- 
ter, but  the  assigning  of  this  work  to  the  glost-kiln  men  instead  of 
to  the  dippers'  helpers,  who  would  have  to  do  it  if  it  were  done  wet,  is 
a  thing  of  long  standing  in  the  Trenton  district  and  could  not  be 
changed  without  disturbing  the  very  elaborate  piecework  system  now 
in  force.  It  is,  however,  quite  within  the  power  of  the  men  to  insist 
on  this  change  if  they  care  to,  as  was  done  in  August,  1911,  by  the 
glost-kiln  men  of  East  Liverpool. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTEEIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  19 

Placing  the  glazed  ware  in  saggers  to  be  fired,  and  finishing  it 
when  finishing  is  done,  is  carried  on  in  the  space  directly  beside  the 
kiln  or  kilns,  and  therefore"  the  work  is  often  hot,  but  ventilation  is 
almost  always  sufficient  during  the  time  the  men  are  placing  the  ware. 
As  no  glaze  drops  on  the  floor,  the  question  of  cleanliness  is  not  so 
important  here  as  in  the  dipping  room.  (Host-kiln  men  have,  if 
anything,  even  less  adequate  washing  facilities  than  dippers.  They 
also  usually  eat  a  mid-morning  lunch  in  the  room  in  which  they  are 
working,  with  unwashed  hands.  They  wear  overalls  and  when  they 
quit  work  they  look  well  washed  and  free  from  dust,  but  this  is  only 
superficially  apparent.  Some  of  them  say  that  they  only  rinse 
their  hands  at  the  factory  and  wait  till  they  get  home  for  a  real 
cleansing. 

The  hours  in  these  factories  are  not  long  and  the  dippers  and  kiln 
men  usually  leave  work  by  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  They  work 
rapidly,  but  their  speed  is  very  much  a  matter  of  their  own  regu- 
lation. 

COLOR  WORK. 

Decoration  used  to  be  a  dangerous  process  in  the  potteries  when 
ground  laying  and  tinting  were  more  generally  done,  but  the  change 
in  popular  taste,  leading  to  a  demand  for  clearly  defined  patterns  on 
white  ground,  has  done  away  with  much  of  this  work.  There  is  more 
decoration  done  in  East  Liverpool  than  in  Trenton,  owing  to  the 
character  of  the  ware.  Decalcomania  and  printing  may  be  ignored 
in  this  inquiry,  leaving  as  the  only  branches  to  be  considered  the 
grinding  and  sifting  of  colors,  ground  laying,  tinting,  and  hand 
painting.  The  hand  painters  use  lead  colors,  but  in  an  oity  medium,- 
and  apply  them  with  a  brush,  so  they  run  no  risk  if  they  use  the 
most  ordinary  care.  On  the  other  hand,  the  preparation  of  colors, 
tinting,  and  ground  laying  are  recognized  as  decidedly  dangerous. 
The  preparation  of  colors  is  usually  done  by  one  skilled  man,  the 
foreman,  in  a  separate  room.  Ground  laying  is  still  done  occasion- 
ally, but  was  seen  only  in  one  place  visited.  It  consists  in  dusting 
dry  colors  on  a  prepared  surface  by  means  of  pads  of  cotton.  The 
color  sticks  to  the  prepared  part  of  the  ware  and  is  wiped  off  from 
the  edges  with  clean  cotton. 

Tinting  lias  almost  taken  the  place  of  ground  laying  now.  It  was 
seen  in  almost  every  pottery  in  East  Liverpool,  and  in  some  of  the 
general-ware  potteries  in  Trenton,  but  in  several  of  them  so  little 
tinting  is  done  that  one  man  can  do  all  the  work  of  three  or  four 
plants.  In  tinting,  the  colors  are  applied  in  a  spray,  driven  through 
an  atomizer  by  compressed  air..  This  is  the  process  spoken  of  in 
British  reports  as  "  color  blowing."  The  ware  is  held  under  a  hood 
at  the  back  of  which  is  an  electric  fan,  fixed  in  a  flue  or  a  hole  in  the 
wall,  which  communicates  with  the  outside  air.     If  this  fan  exerts 


20  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 

the  proper  amount  of  suction,  and  if  the  spray  is  not  driven  with  too 
much  force  through  the  atomizer,  and  if  the  hood  is  deep  enough  to 
allow  the  ware  to  be  held  a  little  distance'from  the  tinter,  the  dangers 
of  the  work  have  been  minimized  as  much  as  possible.  These  condi- 
tions are  not  always  met.  In  some  factories  if  one  stands  at  one  side 
of  the  tinter  so  as  to  be  able  to  see  between  him  and  the  hood,  a  fine 
spray  of  color  can  be  seen  blowing  back  over  his  person.  This  is 
especially  true  if  he  is  tinting  the  side  of  a  large  object,  such  as  a 
pitcher  or  basin.  Tinters  were  seen  whose  aprons  were  covered  with 
the  color  they  were  using.  This  work  is  done  by  both  men  and 
women  and  is  regarded  by  them  as  rather  dangerous,  though  the  em- 
ployers believe  that  they  have  eliminated  all  possible  risks.  Our  lists 
contain  eight  cases  of  lead  poisoning  among  decorators  in  two  years' 
time — five  women  and  three  men.  The  English  experts  call  attention 
to  the  greater  risk  run  by  nearsighted  color  blowers  and  ground 
layers,  who  must  hold  their  heads  close  to  their  work.  They  advise 
against  allowing  nearsighted  people  to  do  this  sort  of  work. 

Tinting  used  to  be  much  more  common  in  American  potteries  and 
was  done  without  any  attempt  to  protect  the  men.  There  is  a  night 
watchman  in  Trenton  who  has  had  to  take  up  that  occupation  be- 
cause he  has  a  most  persistent  double  wrist  palsey.  Fifteen  years  ago 
he  was  a  tinter.  and  did  his  work,  without  any  protective  device  for 
carrying  off  the  lead  dust,  in  a  room  where  numbers  of  other  people 
were  employed,  some  tinting,  many  doing  other  work.  He  can  recall 
the  names  of  five  fellow  workmen,  all  dead  now,  though  none  was 
over  40  years  old.  Two  died  with  acute  lead  poisoning,  the  others 
had  the  chronic  form.  "Workmen  who  were  not  decorators  were  often 
poisoned  by  the  dust  that  flew  about  the  room. 

WORKERS  IN  WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES. 

There  are  46  dippers  in  the  Trenton  district  and  85  in  Salem  and 
the  East  Liverpool  district,  which  includes  Chester  and  Newell, 
W.  Ya.  In  Trenton  the  kiln  men  number  392,  but  this  includes  the 
men  employed  on  both  biscuit  and  glost  kilns.  It  was  impossible  to 
ascertain  the  exact  number  of  men  working  on  glost  kilns  in  Trenton 
because  in  many  factories  kiln  men  are  shifted  back  and  forth  be- 
tween the  biscuit  and  the  glost  kilns.  In  East  Liverpool,  where  this 
custom  does  not  obtain,  there  are  300  glost-kiln  men,  and  if  the 
same  proportion  of  glost-kiln  men  to  dippers  exists  in  Trenton  as  in 
East  Liverpool,  there  should  be  something  over  150  men  employed  in 
that  department  in  Trenton  at  any  one  time. 

These  men  are,  almost  without  exception,  of  American,  British,  or 
German  parentage.  Some  of  them  were  born  in  England  and  learned 
the  trade  there.  They  are  well  organized  and  the  National  Brother- 
hood of  Operative  Potters  has  a  voice  in  determining  the  conditions 


LEAD   POISONING  IIST   POTTERIES,    TILE    WORKS,    ETC.  21 

under  which  work  is  done  in  these  potteries.  These  men  are  intelli- 
gent, skilled,  well  paid,  and  they  have  a  high  standard  of  living. 
All  of  them  are  familiar  with  the  risks  of  their  work  and  know  that 
personal  cleanliness  is  of  great  importance  in  the  avoidance  of  lead 
poisoning.  To  all  appearances  they  are  fairly  careful  to  get  rid  of 
the  lead  glaze  when  they  quit  work.  Some  of  them  are,  however, 
rather  reckless  in  the  matter  of  eating  lunch  and  handling  chewing 
tobacco  with  glaze  on  their  hands. 

Inquiry  into  the  length  of  employment  of  the  men  in  these  branches 
showed  the  following:  One  hundred  and  nineteen  dippers  averaged 
a  little  less  than  18  years'  employment ;  50,  or  42  per  cent,  had  worked 
more  than  20  years;  200  glost-kiln  men  averaged  141-  years'  employ- 
ment ; *  63,  or  31.5  per  cent,  had  worked  more  than  20  years.  Con- 
sidering that  this  is  a  well-paid  industry  and  that  most  men  enter  it 
before  the  age  of  20,  the  average  length  of  time  that  they  remain  in 
it  seems  surprisingly  short. 

The  dippers'  helpers  in  sanitary-ware  potteries  are  usually  of  the 
same  class  as  the  dippers  and  are  learning  the  dipper's  trade.  In 
the  potteries  making  general  ware  they  are  boys,  less  often  girls, 
still  more  rarely  women.  They  are  often  from  a  poorer  class  than 
the  dippers;  some  of  them  come  from  Slavic  and  Italian  families, 
with  a  lower  standard  of  cleanliness  and  poorer  living  conditions. 
These  boys  and  girls  are  said  to  be  careless  about  washing  away  the 
lead  before  lunch,  which  many  of  them  eat  on  the  premises.  They 
are  notoriously  unsteady  and  there  is  a  general  complaint  of  the  im- 
possibility of  keeping  these  young  helpers  for  any  length  of  time. 
One  employer  said  that  his  boys  left  every  two  weeks,  and  some  of 
the  dippers  said  that  they  did  not  trouble  to  learn  their  helpers' 
names  for  they  were  always  coming  and  going.  In  conversation  with 
dippers,  one  learns  that  many  of  these  boys  drop  out  because  they 
are  affected  by  the  lead.  They  all  know  what  lead  poisoning  means, 
and  when  they  begin  to  feel  ill  they  leave.  It  is  said  to  be  easy  for  a 
boy  to  find  other  work  in  Trenton. 

The  women  and  girls  in  the  glaze  ro.oms  in  East  Liverpool  number 
about  135.  While  the  men  in  the  trade  are  well  organized,  earn  good 
wages,  live  comfortably,  and  are  sure  of  employment,  the  women  are 
unorganized,  their  living  conditions  are  very  inferior,  their  pay  is 
low,  and  they  have  no  secure  tenure  of  their  position.  Many  are 
widows  or  separated  from  their  husbands  and  with  children  to  sup- 
port ;  others  are  young  girls  from  the  country,  especially  from  "West 
Virginia,  who  are  boarding  or  doing  light  housekeeping.  They  earn 
$1.10  per  day,  and  of  that  they  pay  from  $3  to  $4  a  week  for  board 
and  lodging;  $3  is  the  very  lowest  for  which  it  can  be  obtained,  and 

1  The  Report  of  the  New  Jersey  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  for  1889  gives  the  average 
years  of  work  for  297  kiln  men  as  14J  years. 


22 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 


this  does  not  include  a  place  to  do  their  laundry,  so  they  have  to  pay 
for  that  too.  Physicians  say  that  a  country  girl  who  goes  into  the 
glaze  room  very  soon  loses  her  color  and  becomes  strikingly  anemic, 
and  the  only  thing  that  saves  these  girls  from  serious  forms  of  lead 
poisoning  is  that  they  understand  the  danger  of  the  work  and  usually 
give  it  up  after  one  attack.  However,  there  is  very  little  opportunity 
in  East  Liverpool  for  such  a  girl  to  work  in  any  place  except  a  pot- 
tery, and  if  she  leaves  the  glaze  room  it  is  only  to  go  into  one  of  the 
other  departments,  most  of  which  are  dusty  and  unhealthful ;  so  that 
the  advice  given  hj  physicians  to  a  girl  to  change  her  occupation  can 
only  be  followed  to  a  limited  extent.  On  the  whole,  the  women  and 
girl  helpers  do  not  stay  very  long  in  the  glaze  rooms.  Forty-three 
of  them  averaged  only  two  and  one-half  years'  employment.  Most  of 
the  physicians  and  workmen  interviewed  said  that  the  employment 
of  girls  and  women  in  the  glaze  rooms  was  the  worst  feature  of  the 
industry  in  East  Liverpool. 

The  unskilled  laborers  emploj^ecl  in  those  parts  of  the  potteries 
where  lead  is  handled  are  the  odd  men  in  the  mixing  room  and  those 
who  sweep  the  floor  of  the  glost-kiln  room,  rarely  of  the  glaze  room. 
These  men  are  usually  Slavs  or  Italians.  They  do  not  belong  to 
the  Brotherhood  of  Operative  Potters.  They  are  continually  being 
shifted  from  place  to  place  in  the  pottery  or  from  one  pottery  to 
another.  Often  they  do  not  know  that  they  are  handling  stuff  that 
is  poisonous,  and  they  are  not  told  to  take  any  particular  precaution. 

NUMBER   AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF   EMPLOYEES. 

The  following  shows  the  number  of  persons  comprised  in  this 
study  of  the  Trenton  and  East  Liverpool  fields: 

NUMBER   OF   WORKPEOPLE   IN  TRENTON   AND   EAST   LIVERPOOL    WHITE-WARE 
POTTERIES,    BY   OCCUPATION. 


Occvroation. 


Union 
records. 


Esti- 
mated. 


Total. 


Dippers 

Dippers'  helpers: 
*  Men  and  boys 

Women  and  girls 

Glost-ldin  men 

Tinters: 

Men 

Women 

Odd  men 


?otal. 


20 
15 

105 


350 


132 

75 
135 
464 

20 

15 

105 


946 


GLAZING  AND  DECORATING  OF  ART  AND  UTILITY  WARE. 


COMPARISON  OP   CONDITIONS   OP  WORKERS  IN  ART   AND  UTILITY  WARE 
POTTERIES  AND  IN  WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES. 

It  has  seemed  best  to  take  up  under  a  separate  head  the  making 
of  yellow  ware,  Rockingham,  and  the   so-called  "  art   and  utility 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  23 

ware,"  which  means  earthenware  decorated  with  colored  glazes  or 
with  colors  applied  under  or  over  the  glaze.  These  branches  of  the 
pottery  industry  are  carried  on  under  conditions  quite  different  in 
many  ways  from  those  described  in  the  section  on  white  ware.  In 
the  United  States  the  National  Brotherhood  of  Operative  Potters 
has  organized  the  workers  in  the  white-ware  potteries,  and  these  men 
make  good  wages  and  have  a  voice  in  controlling  the  conditions 
under  which  their  work  is  done.  The  making  of  cheap  yellow  ware 
and  of  the  dark-brown  ware  known  as  Rockingham  is  not  strictly 
in  this  class.  In  East  Liverpool  this  ware  is  in  some  instances  made 
in  one  department  of  a  white-ware  pottery,  and  as  it  was  impossible 
to  separate  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning  among  the  makers  of  this  class 
of  ware  from  the  others  of  East  Liverpool,  all  the  pottery  workers  in 
this  district  have  been  counted  together  as  white-ware  workers. 
The  making  of  Rockingham  and  yellow  ware  is  a  diminishing  in- 
dustry. In  former  years  there  was  a  great  deal  made  in  East  Liver- 
pool, but  now  there  is  not  much.  Three  potteries  still  make  it,  em- 
ploying 3  to  5  clippers  and  10  to  12  kiln  men,  but  only  2  of  them  were 
operating  at  the  time  this  inquiry  was  made.  Yellow  ware  and  Rock- 
ingham are  made  from  brown  clays,  and  the  glaze  used  is  much  richer 
in  lead  than  the  glaze  for  white  ware,  usually  containing  10  to  50  per 
cent  of  a  mixture  of  white  and  red  lead.  One  advantage,  however, 
is  that,  as  this  ware  is  cheap,  no  sponging  or  rubbing  of  the  glaze  is 
done,  which  means  that  the  glaze  needs  less  handling  and  that  girls 
are  not  employed  in  the  dipping  room. 

The  Zanesville  district,  including  Crooksville  and  Roseville.  is 
the  center  for  art  and  utility  ware  potteries,  and  some  j^ellow  ware 
and  Rockingham  is  also  made  there.  The  art  ware,  consisting  of 
vases,  bowls,  jardinieres,  pedestals,  spittoons,  pitchers,  etc.,  is  much 
of  it  "  single-fire  "  ware,  and  the  glaze  contains  a  great  deal  of  lead. 
The  decoration  is  sometimes  done  with  colored  glaze  (majolica),  or 
colors  are  applied  under  or  over  the  glaze.  Included  in  this  section 
is  one  factory  making  white  ware,  since  it  makes  also  art  ware  and 
employs  the  same  class  of  labor  and  pays  the  same  rate  of  wages  as 
the  others. 

GREATER  DANGER  IN  ART  AND  UTILITY  WARE  POTTERIES. 

There  is  a  very  different  state  of  things  found  in  these  potteries 
from  that  found  in  East  Liverpool  and  Trenton,  both  as  to  the  kind 
of  work  done  and  as  to  the  character  of  the  workpeople.  Mixing  is 
more  dangerous  in  these  potteries  because  large  amounts  of  colored 
glazes  rich  in  lead  must  be  prepared.  One  pottery  employs  no  less 
than  10  men  in  the  mill  room,  and  uses  a  glaze  containing  50  per 
cent  of  white  lead. 


24 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 
COMPOSITION   OF  THE   GLAZES. 


The  following  are  the  proportions  of  lead  in  the  glazes  said  to  be 
used  in  seven  art  potteries : 

PROPORTION  OF  LEAD  IN  GLAZES  USED  IN  7  ART  POTTERIES, 


Establishments. 


No  1 
No.  2 
No.  3 

No.  -1 


Per  cent 
of  lead 

in  glaze 
used. 


50 
334 
20 
40 


Establishments. 


No.  5 
No.  6 
No.  7 


Per  cent 
of  lead 

in  glaze 
used. 


10-20 
50 
15 


The  dippers  are  not  engaged  in  clipping  only.  Some  must  also  do 
the  finishing,  either  sponging  the  ware  or  scraping  the  glaze  off 
after  it  has  partly  dried,  an  operation  which  is  known  as  "  fettling." 
In  one  pottery-  there  was  an  ingenious  arrangement  for  finishing. 
Each  clipping  tub  had  a  scrubbing  brush  fastened  to  the  edge  and  as 
the  dipper  brought  his  ware  up  from  the  glaze  he  passed  it.  bottom 
side  down,  over  the  brush,  to  remove  the  excess  of  glaze.  Other 
dippers  spend  part  of  their  time  laying  on  colors  or  colored  glazes 
with  paint  brushes.  One  woman  dipper  was  seen  who  dipped  the 
lower  part  of  the  ware  in  the  colored  glaze.  She  was  said  to  be 
"blending,"  not  clipping,  technically.  There  were  34  men  dippers 
and  1  woman  in  the  7  potteries  studied,  and  there  were  2  boys  and  6 
girls  engaged  in  fettling  or  sponging. 

The  decorating  department  of  an  art  pottery  is  very  important 
and  really  spreads  over  into  the  dipping  department.  Ground  lay- 
ing was  not  seen,  but  there  is  a  great  deal  of  tinting  or  color  spray- 
ing, a  description  of  which  has  been  given  in  the  section  on  white 
ware.  Thirty-two  men  tinters  and  nine  women  were  employed  in 
the  7  factories  studied.  Seven  men  and  23  women  were  engaged  in 
hand  painting.  The  decorating  by  dipping  is  clone  by  the  clip- 
pers. Of  the  four  potteries  in  which  tinting  is  done,  three  were 
in  a  condition  to  be  inspected;  the  other  was  not  at  the  time  using 
this  kind  of  decoration.  None  of  the  three  had  all  their  hoods  pro- 
vided with  proper  exhausts,  and  in  two  there  were  no  curtains  at 
the  sides  of  the  hoods,  so  that  undoubtedly  the  lead  color  which  was 
sprayed  over  the  ware  escaped  into  the  room  and  was  a  clanger  not 
only  to  the  tinters,  but  to  the  other  workers,  for  the  tinting  machines 
are  not  in  a  separate  room. 

Art  and  utility  potteries,  even  when  kept  as  clean  as  possible,  are 
more  dangerous  than  white-ware  and  sanitary  potteries,  because  the 
glaze  is  rich  in  lead  and  because  there  is  a  great  deal  of  tinting  done. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WOEKS,   ETC.  25 

NUMBER   AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  EMPLOYEES. 

The  following  are  the  numbers  employed  in  these  seven  plants : 

NUMBER   OP   WORKPEOPLE    IN   YELLOW   WARE   AND   ART   AND   UTILITY    WARE 
FACTORIES,   BY   SEX  AND  OCCUPATION. 


Occupation. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

19 
34 
72 
2 
7 
32 

19 

1 

35 

72 

6 

23 

9 

8 

30 

41 

Total 

1C6 

39 

205 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  lead  that  enters  into  the  compo- 
sition of  the  glaze  is  not  the  only  lead  used,  for  the  colors  put  on  by 
painting  and  spraying  also  contain  varying  quantities  of  lead. 

Fifteen  of  the  men  in  the  glaze  room  of  these  potteries  averaged 
two  and  one-half  years'  employment. 

GLAZING  AND  DECORATING  OF  WALL,  FLOOR,  ART,  AND  ROOF  TILES. 

NUMBER  OP  PLANTS    STUDIED. 

The  processes  used  in  the  glazing  and  decorating  of  tiles  are  more 
like  those  found  in  the  potteries  just  described  than  in  the  sanitary 
and  general  ware  potteries.  Here  we  have,  as  in  the  making  of  art 
and  utility  ware,  an  unorganized  trade  employing  women  and  young 
men  at  a  low  wage  in  work  which  requires  the  use  of  glazes  rich  in 
lead. 

The  potteries  in  which  lead-glazed  tiles  are  made  and  which  form 
the  subject  of  this  study  are  situated  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  Zanesville, 
Ohio,  Newell,  W.  Va.,  Covington  and  Newport,  Ky.,  Indianapolis, 
Inch,  and  Chicago,  111.  Eleven  of  these  were  visited,  but  in  one 
permission  was  refused  to  inspect  more  than  a  small  part  of  the 
factory.  All  make  colored  tiles  and  all  but  four  make  both  white 
and  colored.  In  two  of  them  the  output  of  white  tiles  constitutes  90 
per  cent  of  the  whole. 

COMPOSITION  OP  GLAZES. 

What  is  true  of  mixing  the  glaze  in  art  and  utility  potteries  is 
true  of  mixing  in  tile  works,  most  of  which  require  a  great  variety 
of  glazes  and  use  large  amounts  of  lead,  only  two  establishments 
reporting  the  use  of  a  glaze  with  as  little  as  5  per  cent,  all  the  other 
glazes  containing  20  per  cent  or  more,  the  amount  even  running  to 
60  per  cent  in  4  establishments.     In  the  11  establishments  making 


26  BULLETIX    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 

glazed  tiles  included  in  this  report  the  following  statements  were 
made  as  to  the  amount  of  white  lead  entering  into  the  composition  of 
the  glazes  used: 

No.  1.  Information  refused  by  officials ;  workmen  say  10  to  15 
per  cent  in  white :  more  than  twice  as  much  in  colored. 

No.  2.  White,  5  per  cent ;  colored,  40  to  50  per  cent. 

No.  3.  White,  5  per  cent ;  colored,  30  per  cent. 

No.  4.  20  to  60  per  cent. 

No.  5.  30  per  cent,  colored  only. 

No.  6.  20  per  cent  red  lead. 

No.  7.  60  per  cent,  colored  only. 

No.  8.  60  per  cent,  colored  only. 

No.  9.  Information  refused.     Colored  glaze  chiefly. 

No.  10.  White,  20  to  30  per  cent ;  colored,  60  per  cent.  Part  of 
the  lead  is  fritted. 

No.  11.  20  per  cent,  colored  only. 

DESCRIPTION  OP  PROCESSES. 

The  mixers  are  always  men,  and  usually  only  1  or  2  are  employed 
in  each  factory.     Sixteen  mixers  were  found  in  the  11  factories. 

White  tiles  are  dipped  in  a  glaze  less  rich  in  lead  than  that  used 
for  colored  tiles.  Several  methods  of  dipping  are  used — hand  dip- 
ping, pouring,  and  machine  dipping.  In  hand  dipping  the  tile  does 
not  need  to  be  immersed  in  the  glaze,  for  only  one  side  is  glazed,  and 
the  dippers'  hands  do  not  become  smeared,  as  in  pottery  dipping. 
In  pouring  the  glaze  on  small  tiles,  a  number  of  them  are  placed  on 
a  sloping  surface  which  drains  into  the  dipping  tub  when  the  glaze 
is  poured  over  them.  Larger  tiles,  such  as  roof  tiles,  are  held  one  by 
one  over  the  dipping  tub  while  the  glaze  is  poured  over.  'One  end  of 
the  roof  tile  is  left  unglazed  because  the  tile  above  is  to  lap  over  it. 
and  the  dipper  holds  the  tile  by  this  end,  so  if  he  is  careful  he  can 
keep  his  hands  perfectly  clean.  The  disadvantage  of  the  pouring 
method  is  that  a  great  deal  of  glaze  runs  over  the  edges  of  the  tiles 
and  must  be  scraped  or  brushed  away  by  hand. 

More  common  than  the  pouring  method  for  wall  tiles  is  machine 
dipping,  and  this  is  much  the  safer  way.  for  no  handwork  is  required 
except  to  place  the  tiles  on  the  traveling  belt  of  the  dipping  machine 
and  take  them  off  after  they  have  passed  over  the  glaze.  There  is 
no  splashing  from  such  machines  and  no  scraping  or  brushing  off 
is  needed,  because  the  machine  applies  the  glaze  with  perfect  even- 
ness. This  machine  dipping  is  the  least  dangerous  work  done  in  the 
glaze  department  of  a  tile  works,  and  if  it  were  carried  on  in  a  room 
separate  from  the  hand  dipping  and  the  finishing  it  would  be  attended 
with  very  little  risk  to  the  workpeople.  Such  a  separation  of' 
comparatively  safe  from  dangerous  processes  was  not  seen  in  any 


LEAD   POISONING   IX   POTTEBIES,    TILE    WOBKS,    ETC.  27 

factory  visited.  Even  when  all  the  white  ware  is  glazed  in  a  separate 
room  there  is  still  hand  dipping  and  finishing  in  this  same  room,  as 
well  as  the  machine  work,  because  the  irregularly  shaped  white  "tiles, 
the  border  and  cornice  pieces  (known  to  the  workmen  as  "  shapes  ") 
are  always  dipped  and  finished  by  hand,  not  by  machine. 

Finishing  is  done  in  two  ways.  The  glaze  that  runs  down  over 
surfaces  where  it  is  not  needed  may  be  scraped  off  with  an  instrument 
like  a  palette  knife — a  process  known  as  "  fettling  " — or  it  may  be 
brushed  off  with  a  stiff  brush.  Now,  if  it  is  scraped  off  before  it  has 
had  time  to  dry  completely,  there  need  net  be  much  dust.  There  will 
always  be  some,  because  the  scraped-off  glaze  falls  on  the  table  or 
en  the  floor  and  dries.  The  English  experts  recommend  that  all 
scraping  of  glazed  ware  be  done  over  a  trough  of  water,  while  the 
glaze  is  still  damp,  and  such  precautions  would  be  of  immense  service 
in  our  tile  works.  As  it  is,  tiles  are  often  kept  over  night  or  even 
over  Sunday  before  they  are  scraped,  and  the  girl  and  boy  "  fettlers," 
as  they  are  called,  scrape  and  blow  away  a  fine  powdery  glaze  con- 
taining sometimes  as  much  as  60  per  cent  white  lead,  which  settles 
on  their  clothes  and  hair,  and  can  be  seen  even  in  their  nostrils. 
They  are,  of.  course,  not  the  only  ones  who  suffer  from  this  dust,  as 
all  the  others  working  in  the  same  room,  no  matter  how  harmless 
their  occupation,  must  breathe  this  lead-laden  air. 

Brushing  is  not  a  common  way  of  finishing,  fortunately,  but  it  is 
sometimes  done,  and  apparently  it  is  left  to  the  finisher  to  decide 
which  method  she  will  use.  The  work  is  usually  paid  for  by  the 
piece,  and  some  women  said  they  could  work  faster  with  the  brush, 
while  the  majority  preferred  a  fettle.  In  one  tile  works,  the  worst 
of  all  seen,  the  work  of  glazing  and  finishing  is  carried  en  in  the 
same  room  as  all  the  other  processes,  from  pressing  to  firing.  At 
the  end  of  the  day  all  the  workpeople  sweep  and  brush  the  floor  and 
tables  where  they  are  working,  and  do  this  without  any  preliminary 
sprinkling.  The  result  is  vast  clouds  of  dust,  which  fill  the  air  so 
that  one  can  hardly  see,  and  from  which  the  people  emerge  powdered 
like  millers. 

Colored  tile  glazing  is  done  almost  entirely  by  hand,  though  plain 
colors  may  be  put  on  by  machine.  The  hand  dipping  is  usually 
done  by  men,  the  fettling  by  women  and  girls,  but  in  some  cases  the 
latter  also  clip.  What  has  been  said  of  the  finishing  of  white  tiles 
applies  to  the  finishing  of  colored  also.  In  one  factory  a  very 
dangerous  kind  of  glazing  was  seen.  It  was  desired  to  apply  a 
colored  glaze  to  a  tile,  the  body  of  which  was  too  hard  to  absorb 
much  liquid,  so  liquid  glaze  was  first  brushed  over  the  surface  of  the 
.tiles,  which  lay  spread  out  on  a  table,  and  then  dry  colored  glaze  was 
sifted  over  this  moist  surface.  Of  course  the  powdered  glaze,  con- 
taining GO  per  cent  white  lead,  floated  in  the  air  and  spread  through 


28 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUEEATT   OF    LABOK. 


the  room  where  all  the  other  glaze  workers  were  employed.  In  two 
other  factories  artistic  tiles  were  painted  by  hand  with  colored  glazes 
and  finished  by  scraping  and  brushing  by  the  men  who  did  the 
painting. 

Tiles  decorated  with  mottled  color,  called  onyx  tiles,  must  be 
treated  twice,  first  with  a  harder  glaze  which  forms  the  background, 
and  then  with  a  softer  glaze  of  a  contrasting  color,  which  is  sprinkled 
on.  In  many  tile  works  the  second  glaze  is  dabbed  on  with  balls  of 
cotton  soaked  in  the  colored  glaze.  This  work  may  be  done  by  either 
men  or  women.  The  onyx-tile  worker  gets  his  hands  covered  with 
colored  glaze  and  splashes  it  over  his  apron  and  the  table.  In  some 
places  another  method  of  mottling  still  obtains.  The  tiles,  covered 
with  the  first  glaze  by  pouring,  are  spread  out  on  a  table,  a  man  takes 
a  pailful  of  the  colored  glaze,  and,  scooping  it  up  in  his  hand,  sends 
it  scattering  over  the  table.  Such  a  way  of  handling  lead  glaze  needs 
no  comment. 

Onyx  work  is  carried  on  in  the  same  rooms  with  other  less  dan- 
gerous work.  In  one  factory  the  sprinkling  process  just  described 
was  done  in  the  same  room  with  all  the  glazing.  In  another  it  was 
done  in  a  general  room  in  which  were  the  kilns,  and  three  14-year-old 
boys  were  working  there  at  the  time  as  kiln  drawers'  helpers. 

Placing  the  glazed  ware  in  saggers  for  the  kilns  is  carried  on 
sometimes  in  a  separate  room,  and  is  then  attended  with  little  risk 
from  dust,  but  this  is  the  exception,  not  the  rule.  Usually  the  girls 
and  boys  who  tend  the  machine  and  fettle  also  place,  and  the  work 
is  done  in  the  same  room.  Sometimes  the  kiln  men  do  the  placing, 
but  this  is  unusual. 

HUMBEPv  AND  BXSTSIBTTTIOtf  OF  EMPLOYEES. 

This  is  an  approximately  correct  statement  of  the  distribution  of 
workpeople  in  the  glaze  departments  of  the  11  tile  works. 

NUMBER  OF  WORKPEOPLE  IN  TILE  WORKS,  BY  SEX  AND  OCCUPATION. 


Occupation. 

Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

20 
54 
17 
5 
25 
8 
9 

20 

36 

42 
58 
55 
12 
1 

GO 

59 

63 

80 

20 

10 

Total 

138 

204 

342 

Twenty-five  men  tile  workers  averaged  a  little  over  three  years' 
employment ;  31  women  averaged  a  little  less  than  three  years. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  29 

SANITARY  CONDITIONS  IN  POTTERIES  AND  TILE  WORKS. 
WHITE-WARE   P0TTEEJE3. 

The  white-ware  potteries  of  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  and 
Pennsylvania  are  subject  to  no  special  rules  of  sanitation,  but  simply 
come  under  the  general  State  laws  governing  factories  and  work- 
shops. There  is  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  these  establishments  so 
far  as  the  almost  complete  lack  of  hygienic  regulations  is  concerned. 
A  few  are  better  than  the  majority  because  they  are  newer  and  more 
spacious;  others  stand  out  in  contrast  because  they  are  under  the 
charge  of  very  careful  foremen,  who  will  not  tolerate  dust,  but  for  the 
most  part  what  is  said  of  one  pottery  would  apply  to  all.  The  pro- 
visions required  by  law  in  England  and  Germany  for  the  protection 
of  potters  against  lead  poisoning  are  not  found  in  our  country- 
Washing  facilities  consist,  of  small  sinks  with  one  or  two  faucets  of 
cold  water.  Hot  water  is  very  rarely  provided;  soap  and  towels 
never.  Often  the  glost-kiln  men  must  go  to  the  dipping  room  to 
wash,  for  they  have  no  sink  provided  for  them.  There  are  no  lockers 
to  keep  clothes,  which  must  hang  anywhere,  sometimes  on  the  wails 
of  the  dipping  room.  There  is  no  lunch  room  and  no  place  provided 
for  the  people  to  store  their  lunches  away  from  the  dust.  The  girls 
in  the  dipping  room  often  go  into  the  biscuit  warehouse  to  eat  their 
lunches,  but  sometimes  this  is  against  the  rules  and  they  are  obliged 
to  eat  in  the  glaze  room.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  no  medical  care 
is  given  the  employees  of  any  pottery.  If  there  is  a  physician 
attached  to  the  plant,  he  is  called  on  for  accident  cases  only  or  to 
give  emergency  care  to  a  case  of  violent  colic  or  convulsions  occur- 
ring on  the  premises. 

The  sweeping  is  a  quite  unnecessary  danger.  In  the  glost-kiln 
room  the  kiln  men  insist  that  the  odd  man  who  does  the  sweeping 
shall  either  wet  the  floor  thoroughly  before  he  sweeps,  or  wait  until 
they  have  gone  before  he  begins,  but  in  the  mixing  room  and  the 
dipping  room  there  is  often  very  little  care  shown.  The  girl  helpers 
hurry  through  their  sweeping  with  a  perfunctory  preliminary  sprin- 
kling, and  the  dipper  often  contents  himself  with  insisting  that  they 
shall  wait  till  he  has  gone,  though  some  dippers  do  compel  their  girls 
to  do  the  work  carefully.  The  only  safe  way  would  be  to  flush  the 
floors  with  a  hose,  but  this  is  never  done. 

The  men  wear  overalls  or  old  trousers  and  shirts,  which  they  leave 
in  the  pottery  when  they  have  finished  work.  The  women  and  girls 
usually  put  on  old  skirts  and  waists,  but  they  often  keep  on  their 
petticoats,  and  their  street  clothes  may  be  left  hanging  in  the  dipping 
room.  Not  half  of  them  protect  their  hair  by  wearing  caps,  and 
those  who  act  as  helpers  for  careless  dippers  get  glaze  splashed  on 


30  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUEEAU   OF   LABOK. 

their  faces  and  hair,  while  the  girls  who  gather  together  the  glazed 
pieces  almost  always  show  white  dust  on  their  hair  and  in  their 
nostrils. 

ART  AJSTB   UTILITY  WARE   POTTERIES. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  white-ware  potteries  applies  also  to 
those  making  "  art  and  utility  "  ware,  only  the  lack  of  sanitary  con- 
trol is  even  a  more  serious  evil  in  these  potteries  because  the  glaze 
contains  so  much  more  lead.  Unfortunately,  in  those  very  potteries 
where  the  most  dangerous  glaze  is  used,  a  very  low  standard  of 
cleanliness  is  often  found.  Indeed,  the  cleanest  and  most  carefully 
managed  pottery  of  the  seven  art  pottery  works  visited  is  the  one 
which  uses  the  smallest  amount  of  lead.  In  this  pottery  the  dipping 
room  has  a  cement  floor  and  it  is  sprinkled  before  being  swept.  It- 
is  by  far  the  cleanest  dipping  room  that  was  seen,  but  in  this  same 
pottery  the  decorating  room  has  a  dusty  wooden  floor,  and  one  of 
the  hoods  over  a  tinting  apparatus  had  so  poor  an  exhaust  that  clouds 
of  the  spray  came  back  into  the  room.  In  another  of  these  potteries 
there  is  a  careful  foreman  who  keeps  the  dust  in  the  dipping  room 
down  to  a  minimum,  but  the  weighing  and  mixing  of  the  glaze  is 
clone  at  one  end  of  the  dipping  room.  A  third  factory  is  new  and 
clean,  but  the  remaining  four,  employing  some  150  persons  in  glaz- 
ing and  decorating,  are  dusty,  dangerous  places.  In  two  of  them 
there  is  not  even  so  simple  a  precaution  as  wet  sweeping.  Not  one  of 
the  seven  provides  a  room  for  the  keeping  and  eating  of  lunches, 
only  one  provides  hot  water,  none  furnish  soap  and  towels,  and  none 
have  proper  lockers  for  the  workpeoples'  clothes. 

The  worst  one  is  described  as  follows:  This  is  a  crowded,  ill- 
ventilatecl,  neglected  place  with  very  dusty  wooden  floors.  There 
are  piles  of  dust  in  the  corners  and  on  the  stairways,  and  the  windows 
and  walls  are  coated  with  it.  Dipping  and  decorating  with  colors 
and  colored  glazes  are  done  here,  there,  and  everywhere  at  the  ends 
of  passages  or  in  corners  of  rooms  where  other  work  is  being  carried 
on.  There  is  no  attempt  to  separate  dangerous  from  safe  work. 
The  exhaust  in  the  tinting  machine  is  net  strong  enough.  Lunches 
are  kept  and  eaten  anywhere.  There  is  no  provision  for  street  clothes, 
and  cold  water  only  is  provided.  All  the  glaze  used  contains  50  per 
cent  white  lead.  Thirt3^-three  employees  handle  glaze  or  colors. 
This  factory  yielded  the  largest  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning. 

TILE  WORKS. 

In  tile  factories  also  there  is  no  sanitary  control  of  the  glaze  rooms, 
and  because  of  the  large  amount  of  "  fettling,"  i.  e.,  scraping  or  brush- 
ing dry  glaze,  these  are  perhaps  the  dustiest  of  all.  A  sink  with  only 
cold  water  for  washing,  and  a  rule,  often  unenforced,  that  water  shall 
be  sprinkled  on  the  floors  before  they  are  swept,  are  the  only  attempts 
made  in  most  places  against  the  very  real  clangers  from  glaze  dust. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN"   POTTERIES,    TILE   WOPiKS,    ETC.  31 

The  street  clothes  often  hang  on  the  walls  of  the  workrooms.  Women 
workers  often  go  home  in  the  skirts  they  have  worn  all  day,  covered 
with  a  long  coat  to  hide  the  white  dust.  Caps  to  protect  the  women's 
hair  are  an  exception.  Lunches  are  tucked  away  in  any  convenient 
place  and  eaten  wherever  it  is  comfortable.  In  one  of  the  best  of 
these  plants  15  girls  were  found  eating  their  lunch  at  the  dipping 
tables  for  onyx  tiles.  Hot  water,  soap,  and  towels  are  never  pro- 
vided. The  sweeping  must  be  clone  by  the  men  and  girls  after  work 
is  over.  The  floors  are  rarely  if  ever  washed  really  clean,  and  most 
of  them  are  white  with  the  accumulated  dust  of  years. 

A  reference  to  the  section  in  the  appendix  on  sanitary  regulations 
in  the  British  potteries  would  suggest  that  there  is  much  more  lead 
poisoning  in  this  trade  in  our  country  than  over  there,  for  all  the 
provisions  for  the  prevention  of  lead  poisoning  which  in  this  country 
are  neglected  have  been  made  compulsory  in  Great  Britain.  The  re- 
sults of  the  different  policies  followed  by  these  two  countries  can  be 
seen  in  our  records  of  lead  poisoning  as  compared  with  British 
records. 

PORCELAIN  ENAMELING  OF  IRON  SANITARY  WARE. 
NUMBER  OF  PLANTS   STUDIED. 

The  making  of  porcelain  enameled  iron  sanitary  ware,  such  as 
bathtubs,  sinks,  basins,  etc.,  with  a  lead  enamel  is  a  very  large  in- 
dustry in  the  United  States.  This  report  does  not  cover  all  the 
factories  in  which  such  work  is  done,  but  it  covers  the  5  largest  in 
the  country,  2  medium-sized  plants,  and  3  smaller  ones.  At  the  time 
the  inquiry  was  made  there  were  strikes  in  two  factories,  and  these 
places  were  not  open  to  inspection.  These  10  factories  are  in  Chi- 
cago, 111.;  Sheboygan,  Wis.;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Chattanooga,  Term.; 
Salem,  Ohio,  Allegheny,  Monaca,  Zelienople,  and  New  Brighton,  Pa. ; 
and  Trenton,  N.  J.  Altogether  they  employ  between  1,000  and  1,100 
men  in  the  preparation  and  application  of  lead  enamel.  These  men 
are  the  ones  who  mix  the  enamel,  grind  and  sift  it,  the  ones  who 
spread  it  on  the  ware,  and  the  helpers  and  foremen. 

COMPOSITION  OP  ENAMEL  USED. 

The  cast-iron  bathtubs,  sinks,  and  basins,  which  have  been 
roughened  by  sand  blasting,  are  first  given  a  coat  called  the  "  slush," 
or  "  ground  "  coat,  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  iron,  to  make  the  enamel 
adhere  to  it  and  to  bring  together  the  expansion  coefficient  of  iron  and 
enamel  This  slush  contains  small  quantities  only  of  lead.  In 
several  factories  the  slush  was  said  to  be  quite  free  from  lead,  in 
others  to  contain  less  than  1  per  cent.  One  sample  that  was  analyzed 
contained  one-sixth  of  1  per  cent.  The  slush  coat  is  always  applied 
in  liquid  form. 


32  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUKEATJ    OP   LABOK. 

The  enamel  used  on  sanitary  ware  is  a  lead  glaze  consisting  of 
silicates,  borates,  fluorides,  alkalies,  usually  both  soda  and  potash,  in- 
troduced, in  part,  as  feldspar,  carbonates  or  nitrates ;  alkaline  earths, 
calcium,  magnesium  and  barium  oxide;  and  the  oxides  of  tin,  zinc, 
and  lead.  These  are  fused  to  a  liquid  and  run  out  from  the  oven  into 
cold  water,  which  causes  it  to  harden  into  feathery  masses  known  as 
the  "frit."  After  drying  the  frit  is  ground  and  sifted,  and  is  ready 
for  use.  The  lead  content  of  this  glaze  depends  partly  on  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  ware,  partly  upon  the  prejudices  of  the  users  (many 
chemists  say  that  more  lead  is  generally  used  than  is  really  re- 
quired). On  the  theory  that  lead  is  the  element  giving  elasticity 
to  the  enamel,  it  is  customary  to  add  less  lead  to  an  enamel  which  is 
to  cover  an  even  surface,  where  expansion  and  contraction  will  be 
evenly  distributed,  and  more  to  an  enamel  which  is  used  over  rims 
or  projections,  where  there  will  be  unequal  expansion  requiring 
greater  elasticity.  A  commercial  chemist  of  many  years'  experience 
says  that  the  lead  in  an  enamel  for  sanitary  ware  seldom  runs  below 
5  per  cent  or  over  25  per  cent,  but  that  he  has  found  enamels  in  use 
containing  as  little  as  2.9  per  cent. 

As  a  rule,  questions  about  the  quantity  of  lead  in  the  enamel  are 
evaded  by  the  managers  of  these  plants,  but  four  of  them  gave  the 
following : 

No.  1 :     6  to  8  per  cent  litharge  in  mixture  A ;  no  lead  in  mix- 
ture B;  55  to  60  per  cent  of  A  added  to  B.     Slush  coat  one- 
fourth  per  cent  litharge. 
No.  2 :    5  per  cent  red  lead. 

5  to  8  per  cent  red  lead. 
2  per  cent  red  lead. 

These  statements  applied  to  the  enamel  in  common  use  in  each 
plant.  A  recent  writer  on  the  subject  gives  the  formula  of  an  enamel 
which  he  says  is  in  common  use  in  three  factories  in  the  United 
States.1  It  contains  160  pounds  of  red  lead  in  melted  weight,  in  990 
pounds  melted  weight,  or  16  per  cent.  The  writer  referred  to  states 
that  a  higher  per  cent  than  this  is  probably  used  in  all  plants  for 
certain  kinds  of  ware. 

It  is  not  so  important  to  know  how  much  lead  oxide  goes  into  the 
mixture  as  to  know  what  change  it  undergoes  in  the  fritting  process 
and  what  soluble,  and  therefore  poisonous,  compounds  are  present 
in  the  finished  enamel.  The  statement  made  by  managers  and  com- 
pany officials  in  general  is  always  to  the  effect  that  when  the  ingredi- 
ents are  fused  to  form  a  glaze  the  lead  is  changed  to  the  disilicate, 
insoluble  in  the  gastric  juice,  and  therefore  not  poisonous.  Accord- 
ing to  Prof.  A.  V.  Bleininger,  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor,  "  this  statement  is  not  true.     The 

1  Homer  F.  Staley,  The  Control  of  Fusibility  in  Enamels.  Reprinted  from  Transactions 
of  American  Ceramic  Society,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  14. 


No.  3 

No.  4 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WOEKS,   ETC. 


33 


disilieate  (Pb02SiO.)  can  not  be  formed  in  enamels  for  the  simple 
reason  that  there  is  not  enough  silica  to  go  around.  In  fact,  Thorpe's 
statement  holds  quite  accurately."  The  question  as  to  what  actually 
happens  in  this  fusion  process  and  what  forms  of  lead  exist  in  the 
so-called  frit  has  been  gone  into  very  thoroughly  in  the  Thorpe- 
Oliver  report  to  Parliament,1  which  defines  fritted  glazes  as  those 
"  in  which  the  whole  of  the  lead  has  been  fritted  as  a  properly  com- 
pounded lead  silicate — that  is,  fritted  directly  with  the  other  com- 
ponents of  the  glaze  so  as  to  form  a  double  silicate.  *  *  *  Experi- 
ment shows,  however,  that  much  depends  upon  the  nature  and  com- 
position of  the  "  fritted "  lead.  *  *  *  The  ordinary  silicate, 
containing  about  70  per  cent  lead  oxide,  25  per  cent  silica,  with  small 
quantities  of  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  and  alkalies,  corresponding 
in  fact  to  a  crude  monosilicate,  and  which  is  generally  understood  as 
"  fritted  "  lead,  is  hardly  less  soluble  in  acids  than  basic  lead  car- 
bonate [white  lead]." 

That  the  fritting  process  in  use  in  the  sanitary  ware  establishments 
in  the  United  States  does  not  render  the  lead  insoluble  is  shown  by 
the  following  analyses  of  samples  of  enamel  mixtures  made  for  this 
report  by  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Isos.  G  and  7  are  from  the  same  factory. 

PER  CENT  OF  SOLUBLE  LEAD  TN  SEVEN  SAMPLES  OF  ENAMEL  MIXTURES. 


Sample 
No.  1. 

Sample 
No.  2. 

Sample 
No.  3. 

Sample 
No.  4. 

Sample 
No.  5. 

Sample 
No.  6. 

Sample 
No.  7. 

Per  cent  soluble  lead    (PbO) 
when  exposed  to  the  action 
of  0.25  per  cent  hydrochloric 
acid  for  2  hours  (Thorpe  test) . 

9.04 

2.55 

6.31 

8.35 

20.4 

0.51 

10.22 

MIXING  OF  THE  ENAMEL. 

According  to  our  present  knowledge  of  these  enamels  we  may  say 
that  in  grinding,  sifting,  and  applying  the  enamel,  the  workmen  are 
exposed  to  a  dust  which  contains  lead  in  soluble  form,  soluble,  that  is, 
in  the  gastric  juice,  and  probably  also  in  the  saliva  and  the  mucus 
of  the  respiratory  tract,  and  in  mixing  the  ingredients  for  the  enamel 
the  workmen  must  handle  the  oxides  of  lead,  which  are  by  many 
authorities  considered  as  among  the  most  dangerous  of  lead  com- 
pounds, and  by  some  as  the  most  dangerous  of  all  because  of  their 
lightness  and  dustiness. 

Mixing  is  always  clone  in  rooms  quite  separate  from  the  enameling. 
The  materials  which  are  used,  including  the  lead  oxide,  are  stored  in 
bins  or  barrels  and  handled  with  shovels.  In  a  well-equipped  mixing 
room  these  ingredients  fall  through  a  chute  from  the  storage  room 

1  Report  on  the  Employment  of  Compounds  of  Lead  in  the  Manufacture  of  Pottery,  by 
T.  E.  Thorpe  and  Thomas  Oliver,  p.  10.     Home  Office,   London,  1899. 
558S40— 12 3 


34  BULLETIN"    OF    THE   BUEEAU    OF   LABOE. 

into  covered  bins,  which  stand  in  a  row  along  the  wall  and  above 
which,  at  about  the  height  of  a  man's  head  or  a  foot  lower,  is  placed 
a  projecting  hood  with  an  air  exhaust  over  each  bin.  A  rail  runs 
along  the  floor  in  front  of  the  bins,  and  a  truck  on  this  rail.  The 
workman  shovels  material  from  each  bin  into  the  truck,  pushing  it 
from  one  bin  to  the  next  and  opening  and  closing  the  air  exhaust  as 
he  goes.  Such  an  arrangement  was  seen  in  2  of  the  10  factories,  but 
even  in  these  the  mixer  was  not  protected  from  dust,  for  the  exhaust 
was  not  strong  enough  to  carry  it  all  off,  as  could  be  seen  by  the 
deposits  on  top  of  the  hood  and  on  the  wall.  This  dust  may,  how- 
ever, have  come  from  the  unprotected  chute  in  the  floor,  down  which 
the  mixture  was  sent  to  the  fritting  room  below.  In  only  one  case 
was  there  a  hood  over  this  opening. 

In  the  other  factories  not  even  these  precautions  are  taken.  In  two 
of  them  the  ingredients  of  the  glaze  are  simply  thrown  on  the  floor 
and  there  the  men  mix  them  by  working  them  back  and  forth  with 
hoes  and  shovels,  as  dangerous  a  method  as  could  well  be  conceived, 
In  three  others  the  ingredients  of  the  enamel  are  shoveled  into  closed 
mixers  and  the  mixture  is  dumped  either  into  a  truck  or  through  a 
hole  in  the  floor. 

The  rooms  with  the  fritting  furnaces,  if  they  are  separate,  could 
be  fairly  free  from  dust,  but  they  are  usually  dusty  because  of  care- 
less handling  of  the  dry  mixture  which  comes  from  the  mixing  room 
and  goes  into  the  fritting  ovens.  Grinding  the  dry  frit  is  a  very 
dusty  process  in  one  of  these  factories.,  and  the  evil  is  added  to  by  the 
whirling  belts  of  the  machinery,  which  keeps  the  dust  stirred  up  all 
the  time.  Walls,  furnaces,  and  men  were  white  with  enamel  in  this 
place,  and,  in  addition  to  the  other  sources  of  dust,  one  man  was 
shoveling  enamel  into  a  truck  from  a  pile  on  the  floor.  Even  the 
stairway  leading  up  from  this  room  was  white  with  dust.  In  two 
other  places  conditions  would  have  been  fair  had  it  not  been  for 
leakage  from  the  mills.  One  plant  had  a  really  clean  mill  room; 
the  remaining  three  were  dusty  because  the  powder  was  handled 
carelessly  at  the  chutes  coming  down  from  the  mixing  room  or  at  the 
sifters  or  at  the  final  discharge  from  the  mill.  The  enamel  is  usually 
kept  in  closed  receptacles  until  it  is  needed,  for  no  dust  must  fall 
on  it. 

In  all  these  processes  there  is  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  dust  pro- 
duction. Thus,  in  the  mixing  department  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
lead  should  be  handled  as  carelessly  as  it  often  is.  A  properly  pro- 
tected chute  from  the  storage  bins  to  the  mixing  room,  a  hood  with 
a  good  draft  over  the  bins  in  the  mixing  room,  and  a  closed  mixer 
would  lessen  the  dangers  to  the  men  working  there.  The  mill  rooms 
could  be  made  fairly  safe  if  all  the  precautions  observed  in  any  one 
of  the  plants  were  observed  in  all.  This  would  mean  that  the  ma- 
terial from  the  mixing  room  should  be  dropped  into  a  dust-proof 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  35 

receptacle  containing  a  truck,  which  truck  could  then,  after  the  dust 
had  settled,  be  wheeled  out  to  the  fritting  oven.  The  fritting  should 
be  carried  on  in  a  separate  room,  because  there  is  no  reason  why  the 
man  here  should  be  exposed  to  the  dust  from  other  rooms.  The 
covers  of  the  mills  and  sifters  should  be  dust-proof  and  should  never 
be  left  open.  In  one  factory  a  mill  was  found  open  and  discharging 
dust,  a  quite  unnecessary  source  of  danger.  The  finished  enamel 
should  be  dropped  into  trucks  with  covers  and  transported  in  these 
to  the  enameling  rooms.  In  a  number  of  factories  the  helpers  simply 
shovel  the  enamel  into  pails  or  into  open  trucks.  The  walls,  ceilings, 
and  floors  of  the  mill  rooms  and  mixing  rooms  should  be  of  such  ma- 
terial as  to  permit  flushing  with  water.  There  should  be  no  dry 
sweeping  or  dusting  in  any  of  these  rooms.  The  slushers  who  are 
not  handling  dust  should  work  in  a  room  quite  separate  from  the 

enamelers. 

ENAMELING. 

Enameling  is  usually  carried  on  in  large  rooms,  well  built,  with 
brick  or  cement  floors,  high  ceilings,  ventilated  both  from  the  sides 
and  from  the  roof,  and  two  factories  have  in  addition  hoods  with  ex- 
hausts over  each  furnace.  It  is  the  exception  to  find  small,  ill-venti- 
lated enameling  rooms.  One  factory  has  most  of  its  work  done  on 
the  two  top  floors,  with  ventilation  on  four  sides.  The  bathtubs, 
sinks,  basins,  etc.,  which  are  to  be  covered  with  enamel  come  from  the 
sand-blasting  department  to  the  slushers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  paint 
them  over  with  the  "  slush "  or  "  ground "  coat.  If  the  room  in 
which  this  is  done  is  separated  from  the  enameling  room,  as  it  is  in 
one  plant,  the  work  is  perfectly  harmless,  but  generally  the  slushers 
work  at  one  end  of  the  enameling  room  or  in  a  room  opening  di- 
rectly into  it  and  full  of  enamel  dust.  After  the  ware  has  had  this 
preliminary  coat  it  is  handed  over  to  the  enameler  and  his  helper, 
who  put  it  into  the  furnace  till  it  is  red-hot.  Then  it  is  brought 
out  and  placed  on  a  turntable  in  front  of  the  furnace  door.  The 
helper  turns  the  ware  at  different  angles,  while  the  enameler  shakes 
the  powdered  glaze  over  it.  He  uses  for  this  purpose  a  small  or 
large  dredge,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ware.  The  largest  are  too 
heavy  to  carry  and  are  suspended  from  the  ceiling  by  a  chain.  These 
large  dredges  and  some  of  the  smaller  ones  are  worked  by  compressed 
air  or  by  electricity,  a  rod  inside  driving  back  and  forth  and  shaking 
out  the  powder,  but  often  the  enameler  hastens  the  dredging  by 
striking  the  handle  of  the  dredge  with  a  ring  placed  around  it,  or 
with  a  rod.  The  men  say  that  they  feel  the  shocks  of  the  driving  rod 
in  the  dredge,  and  that  this  makes  the  use  of  the  larger  dredges,  with 
their  strong  driving  rods,  very  tiring. 

The  process  of  heating  and  enameling  must  be  repeated  several 
times,  the  ware  being  returned  to  the  furnace  after  each  coat  and 
then  brought  out  for  another  coat.    Large  ware  must  remain  several 


36  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOE. 

minutes  in  the  furnace,  and  in  this  interval  the  men  can  go  over  to 
the  windows  to  cool  off  or  sit  clown  and  rest.  Small-ware  work  is 
more  nearly  continuous,  and  it  is  a  question  among  the  men  which 
is  the  dustier  and  more  strenuous  work.  On  the  one  hand,  small 
ware  does  not  take  so  much  enamel  nor  so  much  strength  to  handle, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  more  pieces  to  be  done. 

In  putting  on  the  first  coat  the  enameler  can  stand  at  a  distance 
from  the  ware,  at  about  1  feet  from  the  small  ware  and  7  or  8  feet 
from  large  ware,  but  the  last  coat  must  be  put  on  with  great  care,  so 
that  no  uneven  places  shall  remain,  and  for  this  the  man  must-  come 
much  closer,  as  close,  indeed,  as  the  heat  will  allow  him  to'.'  He  often 
uses  a  wooden  mask  with  eye  pieces  and  a  projecting  handle  which 
he  places  between  his  teeth,  and  this  makes  it.  possible  for  him  to  get 
closer  to  the  hot  ware.  His  helper  is  not  quite  so  close  to  the  dredge 
as  he  is.  but  there  is  not  much  difference.  After  the  ware  is  done  it 
is  gone  over  by  a  specially  skilled  enameler,  who  looks  for  the  defec- 
tive spots,  and  these  men  may  sometimes  be  seen  dusting  enamel  by 
hand  over  imperfectly  covered  ware. 

DANGERS  INVOLVED  IN  THE  WORK. 

In  the  enamel  room  the  one  thing  that  places  a  limit  upon  the 
accumulation  of  dust  is  the  fear  that,  it  may  blow  down  or  be  shaken 
down  from  the  ceiling  or  beams  and  spoil  the  hot  ware.  The  one 
factory  that  has  its  enameling  room  on  the  upper  floor  has  to  get  rid 
of  the  accumulated  enamel  every  week,  because  the  vibration  of  the 
building  would  shake  it  down.  Other  places  are  not  cleaned  so  often. 
This  work  is  done  by  a  laborer  from  the  mill  or  by  an  enameler's 
helper;  rarely  does  an  enameler  take  the  job.  It  is  excessively  dusty 
work,  for  the  dust  is  blown  down  from  ceilings  and  walls  by  com- 
pressed air  and  swept  up  from  the  floor.  One  manager  has  the  men 
use  a  hose  to  flood  the  walls,  ceiling,  and  floor,  and  he  insists  that 
there  is  no  reason  why  this  method  should  not  be  used  everywhere. 
Another  manager,  to  whom  the  question  was  referred,  said  that  water 
could  be  used  just  as  well  but  the  men  preferred  the  dry  way.  The 
only  man  interviewed  who  had  ever  done  this  work  was  a  Slavic 
enameler.  and  he  was  fully  convinced  as  to  its  danger.  He  had 
agreed  to  do  the  work  on  Sunday  to  earn  some  extra  money,  but  he 
found  that  the  dust  sickened  him  so  that  he  loathed  his  food  for  sev- 
eral days  after  and  he  was  obliged  to  stop  because  he  was  losing 
strength. 

It  is  the  task  of  the  enamelers  and  their  helpers  to  scrape  up  the 
enamel  that  falls  on  the  floor  from  the  dredges,  because  this  is  clean 
and  can  be  used  again.  The  best  arrangement  for  catching  it  is  a 
pit  or  shallow  depression  in  the  floor,  lined  with  zinc,  which  makes 
shoveling  easy.  TThen  this  is  not  provided,  a  sheet  of  metal  is  placed 
tinder  the  ware  to  catch  the  powder. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  37 

WORKERS  IN  IRON  SANITARY  WARE  FACTORIES. 
MILL   HANDS. 

Compounding  enamel  is  skilled  work  and  must  be  done  by  a  trained 
man,  who,  if  he  does  not  actually  handle  the  materials  himself,  at 
least  superintends  the  work.  The  formula  is  always  a  trade  secret, 
jealously  guarded,  which  fact  sometimes  works  to  the  benefit  of  the 
men  employed,  as,  for  example,  in  one  plant  where  the  laborers  who 
do  the  mixing  are  shifted  frequently  to  outside  work  and  other  men 
taken  in  their  places  for  fear  they  might  learn  to  know  the  compo- 
sition of  the  enamel.  These  laborers  are  always  unskilled  men,  work- 
ing at  the  rate  of  wage  which  obtains  in  that  place  for  unskilled 
labor.  In  the  South  they  are  Negroes ;  in  the  North,  Slavs.  Some  of 
them  know  that  they  are  working  with  poisonous  stuff,  because  they 
have  seen  men  who  were  affected  by  it,  but  others  are  quite  ignorant  of 
the  risks  of  the  work.  One  American  workman  was  visited  during  a 
severe  attack  of  acute  lead  poisoning.  He  had  been  employed  for 
only  four  weeks  in  a  mill  room  with  a  leaking  mill.  He  had  not 
known  that  the  millwork  was  dangerous,  though  he  had  known 
enamelers  to  become  poisoned.  The  mill  hands  may,  if  they  choose, 
leave  the  plant  at  lunch  time.  They  usually  wear  old  clothes  or 
overalls,  but  some  work  in  their  undershirts  and  wear  the  same  shirts 
home.  They  are  not  a  steady  class  of  workmen,  but  change  very 
often,  some,  according  to  their  own  account,  quitting  because  the 
work  makes  them  sick.  It  was  hard  to  get  information  from  them 
because  so  few  of  them  understood  English.  Fortj^-five  who  were 
questioned  had  worked  from  3  weeks  to  10  years  in  the  mill  rooms, 
but  only  16  more  than  1  year;  29  had  worked  less  than  1  year. 

ENAMELERS. 

The  enamelers  are  skilled  workmen,  earning  very  good  wages. 
It  was  said  that  with  steady  work  a  man  might  make  $1,000  a  year, 
but  slack  times,  breakdowns,  or  poor  materials  bring  down  his  earn- 
ings until  $2  or  $2.50  per  day  throughout  the  year  is  considered  a 
very  good  average.  It  is  always  piecework,  and  the  man's  earnings 
depend  on  the  supply  of  work.  In  Louisville  and  Chattanooga  the 
enamelers  are  all  American ;  in  Salem,  New  Brighton,  and  Zelienople 
they  are  Americans  and  Slavs ;  in  Sheboygan  they  are  Germans,  Rus- 
sians, and  Austrians;  in  Chicago,  Pittsburgh,  Monaca,  and  Trenton 
they  are  practically  all  Slavs,  this  term  including  Russians,  Poles, 
Bohemians,  Slovaks,  and  Croatians.  Many  of  the  homes  of  these 
people  were  visited,  and  showed  evidences  of  comfort  and  a  high 
standard  of  living.  Indeed,  it  was  only  in  the  lodging  houses  of 
some  recent  immigrants  that  there  seemed  to  be  overcrowding  and 
poverty.     Those  who  could  speak  English  and  German  were  found  to 


38  BULLETIN    OF    THE    BUREAU    OF    LABOE. 

be  intelligent  men.  quite  able  to  describe  their  daily  work  and  its 
effect  on  their  health.  The  enamelers  are  usually  grown  men,  but  in 
two  plants  the  majority  looked  very  young,  between  18  and  22  years, 
apparently. 

According  to  some  of  the  employers  and  most  of  the  foremen  these 
men  are  heavy  drinkers,  but  nothing  was  found  in  the  course  of  the 
inquiry  to  show  that  there  is  an  unusual  degree  of  intemperance 
among  them.  On  discussing  instances  of  lead  poisoning  the  men 
would  tell  whether  such  and  such  a  case  was  a  heavy  drinker  or  not, 
and  no  attempt  was  made  to  gloss  over  the  facts.  But  the  heavy 
drinkers  do  not  seem  to  be  numerous  among  the  Americans,  nor  un- 
usually so  among  the  Slavs,  according  to  priests  and  visitors  for 
charitable  associations  and  Slavic  physicians. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  some  men  begin  to  drink  more  heavily 
when  they  feel  the  first  symptoms  of  lead  poisoning,  because  the 
peculiarly  disagreeable,  sweetish  taste  so  characteristic  of  this 
malady  yields  to  bitter  beer  more  than  it  does  to  tea  or  coffee  or 
milk.  This  gives  the  men  the  idea  that  the  beer  "cuts  the  lead  and 
carries  it  off,"  and  they  sometimes  maintain  this  with  entire  sincerity 
and  say  they  advise  the  new  men  to  drink  beer  as  a  preventive. 
Later  on,  when  appetite  is  gone  and  there  is  a  loathing  for  solid 
food,  the  men  bring  their  lunches  home  untasted,  and  depend  on 
beer.  Several  of  the  men's  wives  noticed  this  symptom  before  their 
husbands  had  begun  to  realize  that  they  were  victims  of  lead  poison- 
ing. Here  there  is,  of  course,  a  vicious  circle,  as  was  pointed  out  by 
Pieraccini,1  the  lead  poisoning  increasing  the  man's  desire  for  alco- 
hol and  making  him  more  susceptible  to  its  ravages,  and  the  alcohol 
in  turn  making  him  more  susceptible  to  the  effect  of  the  lead.  These 
men  are  skilled  workmen  and  their  wages  permit  them  to  live  well, 
so  that  they  are  unwilling  to  leave  the  trade,  yet  their  working  life  is 
short.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  men  averaged  only  six  years  in  the 
trade. 

The  work  of  the  enamelers'  helpers  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  the  enamelers  so  far  as  danger  to  health  is  concerned.  These 
helpers  are  of  two  kinds,  men  who  are  learning  the  trade  and  who 
eventually  become  enamelers,  and  boys  and  unskilled  foreigners  or 
Negroes,  who  are  not  steady  but  come  and  go  all  the  time.  Some- 
times they  quit  because  the  lead  affects  their  health,  sometimes  be- 
cause they  can  not,  stand  the  heat.  In  two  factories  the  enamelers 
said  that  they  did  not  even  have  time  to  learn  their  helpers'  names 
before  they  were  gone.  It  is  rare  to  see  young  boys  employed  as 
helpers:  only  one  factory  had  them  in  any  number.  Nothing  definite 
can  be  said  as  to  the  home  surroundings  and  mode  of  life  of  these 

1  Le?  nevioses  professionelles,  Proceedings  of  the  International  Congress  for  Industrial 
Hygiene,  Brussels,  1910. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  39 

helpers;  If  they  are  young  Americans  learning  the  trade  they  may 
be  well  fed  and  cared  for,  or  they  may  come  from  very  poor  families. 
If  they  are  Slavs  or  Negroes  they  live  as  is  usual  for  such  people 
when  they  are  earning  a  low  wage.  Helpers  are  paid,  according  to 
their  own  statement,  from  75  cents  to  $1.50  at  first;  later  on  they 
earn  from  $2  to  $2.50.  Sometimes  they  earn  a  day  wage  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  percentage  calculated  on  the  earnings  of  the 
enameler.  In  other  factories  the  helper  does  piecework,  his  rate  of 
pay  being  TO  per  cent  of  that  of  the  enameler. 

NUMBER  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  EMPLOYEES. 

The  following  is  the  force  employed  in  the  10  iron  sanitary-ware 
factories  included  in  this  study : 

Enamelers 900 

Mill  hands 112 

Total 1, 012 

SANITARY   CONDITIONS   IN    ENAMELING:    WORKS. 

There  is  no  law  except  in  Illinois  which  requires  in  establishments 
using  dry  lead  enamel  any  precautions  for  the  care  of  the  men  other 
than  those  required  in  a  box  factory,  for  instance,  or  a  tailor  shop. 
The  men  in  the  mixing  rooms,  mill  rooms,  and  enameling-  rooms  have 
no  place  to  hang  their  street  clothes  away  from  the  lead  dust,  and 
no  place  to  keep  or  eat  their  lunch.  Several  times  the  wives  of  these 
men  spoke  of  finding  white  dust  in  their  husbands'  lunch  boxes.  The 
millmen  may  go  out  into  the  yard  or  go  home  for  lunch,  but  the 
enamelers  are  doing  piecework  and  lose  money  if  they  stop  work  to 
eat.  Moreover,  the  furnaces  are  running  continuously,  and  the  men 
are  not  expected  to  let  them  run  at  a  loss  to. the  factory.  The  mana- 
gers who  were  interviewed  said  that  the  men  were  supposed  to  work 
steadily  during  the  six  or  eight  hours  of  their  shift,  except  for  the 
necessary  pauses  while  the  ware  was  heating.  Consequently  these 
men  either  eat  no  lunch  at  all — many  say  that  the  heat  or  the  enamel 
destroys  their  appetite  and  they  do  not  care  for  lunch — or  they  take 
a  bite  now  and  then  while  the  tubs  are  heating.  Frequently  during 
the  course  of  this  inspection  a  man  would  be  seen  opening  his  lunch 
box  and  taking  out  some  food,  then  putting  it  down  anywhere  (there 
is  no  dust-free  place),  and  going  off  to  his  work,  coming  back  in  a 
few  minutes  for  the  rest  of  it.  Of  course,  washing  the  hands  and 
face  before  lunch  is  out  of  the  question  here;  there  is  no  time  for  it. 
In  some  factories  the  drinking  water  stands  in  open  pails  in  the 
enameling  rooms. 

If  the  reader  will  turn  back  to  the  description  of  the  processes  used 
in  enameling  iron  sanitary  ware  (pp.  33-36),  he  will  see  that  this  is 


40  BULLETIN    OP   THE   BUEEAU    OF   LABOK. 

above  all  things  a  dusty  trade  and  that  the  enamelers  and  their  helpers 
are  for  at  least  two-thirds  of  their  working  time  breathing  in  soluble, 
poisonous  lead  compounds.  One  must,  however,  visit  the  factories 
personally  to  realize  how  much  of  this  dust  there  is.  In  one  of  the 
cleaner  enameling  rooms  the  furnaces,  which  were  built  out  into  the 
room,  were  covered  with  a  deposit  of  more  than  2  inches  of  the  finer 
enamel  dust,  which  had  been  carried  up  by  the  drafts  of  air  toward 
the  ceiling,  and  these  2  inches  did  not  represent  a  long  accumulation, 
for  the  stuff  is  carefully  gathered  up  every  two  months.  In  every 
plant  visited  walls,  ceilings,  and  windows  were  white  with  dust,  and 
in  spite  of  ventilators  in  the  rooms,  hoods,  and  open  windows,  the  air 
is  always  cloudy  when  work  is  going  on.  Indeed,  the  enamel  powder, 
consisting,  as  it  does,  of  ground  glass,  is  not  light,  and  an  upward 
draft  carries  off  only  a  small  part  of  it,  while  side  drafts  simply 
blow  it  to  and  fro.  It  would  seem  that  a  strong  down  suction  would 
be  the  only  sort  of  dust  removal  at  all  effective. 

The  men  who  handle  small  ware  do  not  have  to  make  great  physical 
efforts  to  get  their  ware  in  and  out  of  the  furnaces,  but  handling  the 
bathtubs  requires  all  the  men's  strength,  even  with  the  help  of  the 
mechanical  appliances  found  now  in  all  factories.  The  excessive  heat 
is  exhausting,  especially  in  summer,  and  more  so  to  the  men  who  are 
on  large  ware  than  to  those  on  small  ware.  The  men's  wives  speak  of 
their  husbands  coming  home  weak  and  exhausted  on  warm  days,  and 
soaking  wet.  In  some  factories  the  hours  are  shortened  in  summer, 
and  four  shifts  are  employed  instead  of  three  in  order  to  spare  the 
men  and  increase  the  output,  for  there  is  often  an  increased  demand 
for  this  kind  of  ware  during  the  building  season,  but  in  other  fac- 
tories the  long  shift  comes  during  the  summer  time  and  the  short 
shift  is  introduced  when  work  is  slack. 

The  elements  of  heat  and  fatigue  bid  fair  to  grow  worse  in  this 
trade  rather  than  better,  because  of  the  introduction  of  double  fur- 
naces in  place  of  the  single  furnaces.  These  furnaces  are  kept  at  a 
somewhat  lower  temperature,  so  that  the  enamel  does  not  fuse  quite 
so  quickly,  and  one  man  can  tend  both,  for  while  he  is  dredging 
enamel  on  one  piece  of  ware  the  other  is  heating,  and  by  the  time  the 
first  is  ready  to  go  into  the  furnace  the  second  is  ready  to  come  out. 
This  makes  his  work  practically  continuous.  There  are  no  intervals 
here  for  strolling  to  the  windows  for  a  breath  of  air  or  sitting  down 
to  rest.  Even  when  the  hours  are  shortened  from  eight  to  six  the 
man  on  the  double  furnace  .finds  his  work  more  exhausting  than  it 
was  on  the  single  furnace.  It  is  said  that  the  adoption  of  these 
double  furnaces  will  probably  be  general. 

When  the  men  leave  work  they  have  not  got  rid  of  the  lead  dust. 
Shower  baths  are  practically  unknown.  One  manager  is  planning  to 
install  them  and  exhibited  the  architect's  blue  prints  of  a  very  good 


LEAD   POISONING   IX   POTTEEIES,    TILE    WORKS,   ETC.  41 

"  comfort  house."  Another  factory  takes  pride  in  its  shower  baths, 
but  the  neglected  appearance  they  presented  was  explained  by  the 
men  who  were  interviewed  and  who  said  that  the  baths  were  badly 
placed  and  always  out  of  repair.  These  were  intelligent  American 
workmen^  accustomed  to  bathing  at  home.  All  were  obliged  to  carry 
soap  and  towels  to  the  factory,  which  furnished  nothing  but  cold 
water.  So  far  as  soap  and  towels  are  concerned  this  is  true  of  all 
10  factories,  but  in  some  of  them  the  men  can  get  hot  water. 

jSTo  working  clothes  or  caps  are  provided.  The  men  usually  make 
a  complete  change  when  they  leave  work,  but  this  is  not  always  true. 
Some  of  the  foreign  workmen  are  said  to  wear  their  shirts  home,  if 
not  their  trousers.  In  one  plant  which  was  visited  on  a  very  cold  day 
the  helpers,  bo~vs  between  li  and  16  years  of  age,  were  wearing  good, 
new  sweaters  while  working,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these 
same  sweaters  would  be  worn  in  the  street  and  at  home. 

Even  more  important  than  provision  for  cleanliness  is  the  preven- 
tion of  dust,  for  no  amount  of  scrupulous  washing  will  save  a  man 
who  is  obliged  to  breathe  in  lead  dust.  In  this  respect  the  10  fac- 
tories do  differ  somewhat,  because  foremen  have  different  standards, 
and  while  some  are  slovenly,  others  are  naturally  lovers  of  cleanliness. 
One  of  the  10  factories  was  beautifully  clean,  partly  because  it  was 
very  new.  The  others  were  of  different  degrees  of  dustiness,  and  in 
some  dust  seemed  to  be  so  much  a  part  of  the  place  that  no  effort  at 
all  was  made  to  keep  it  down.  Yet  a  great  deal  could  be  done  to 
control  the  dust  without  altering  the  present  method  of  manufacture. 

LEAD  POISONING  IN  POTTERIES.         Q     ^ 
SOURCES   OF  INFORMATION. 

In  attempting  to  find  out  how  many  cases  of  lead  poisoning  have 
occurred  during  a~given  period  of  time  among  the  workpeople  in 
these  industries,  one  meets  with  many  difficulties.  There  was  no 
regular  medical  examination  of  employee-  in  nny  factory  and  no 
registration  of  cases  of  industrial  plumbism  at  the  time  of  this  inves- 
tigation except  in  Illinois  and  "Wisconsin,  where  the  law  had  not 
been  in  force  long  enough  to  give  results  of  value.1  The  records  of 
the  trade-unions  are  of  great  assistance,  but  in  this  inquiry  they 
helped  only  in  the  case  of  the  dippers  and  kiln  men  in  white-ware 
potteries;  the  other  trades  are  all  unorganized.  There  was,  there- 
fore, no  single  trustworthy  source  of  information  as  to  lead  poison- 
ing in  these  occupations,  and  all  that  could  be  done  was  to  interview 
everyone  who  had  any  information  on  the  subject,  and  then  sift 
the  evidence  and  arrive  at  an  approximate  statement  of  the  truth. 
Strict  accuracy  is  not  claimed  for  the  following  figures,  either  as  to 

1  These  laws  were  enacted  in  May  and  June,  1911.  Similar  laws  were  enacted  in  1011 
in  California,  Connecticut.  Michigan,  and  Xew  York ;  in  1012  in  New  Jersey  and 
Maryland. 


42  BULLETIX    OF    THE   BUREAU   OF    LABOE. 

the  numbers  employed  or  the  numbers  poisoned,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  potters  belonging  to  the  National  Brotherhood  of  Operative 
Potters,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  figures  understate  the  actual  facts. 

There  were  four  methods  used  in  collecting  the  cases  of  lead  poison- 
ing on  our  lists.  The  first,  which  yielded  the  largest  number  of 
cases,  was  to  interview  the  physicians  in  the  town  where  the  plant 
was  situated.  Sometimes  the  information  obtained  would  be^too 
vagu  for  use.  A  great  many  doctors  can  not  give  the  names  of  their 
patients,  especially  when  the  latter  are  Slavs  with  names  unfamiliar 
and  hard  to  spell.  If  a  physician  could  make  only  a  general' state- 
ment, such  as  "  I  have  seen  many  cases  in  the  past  two  years,  most 
of  them  foreigners,"  he  only  strengthened  the  general  impression  as 
to  lead  poisoning  in  that  plant ;  he  did  not  add  one  case  to  our  list. 
But  if  he  said,  "  I  saw  four  Slovaks  last  year  suffering  from  lead 
colic,''  and  if  later  on  four  Slovaks  were  found  who  said  that  they 
had  been  to  this  doctor,  these  men  were  entered  on  the  lists  of  cases 
accredited  to  the  factory  in  question,  even  if  the  doctor  could  not 
remember  their  names. 

In  some  cases  the  doctor  could  remember  the  house  in  which  the 
man  lived  or  the  fact  that  he  had  gone  into  another  kind  of  work  or 
had  left  the  town,  from  which  information  it  was  possible  to  make 
sure  that  he  was  not  one  of  the  cases  already  listed.  Fortunately 
there  are  some  physicians  who  speak  the  languages  of  their  foreign 
patients  and  who  can  give  their  names  and  full  particulars  about 
them,  but  usually  it  is  much  easier  to  get  information  about  the 
Americans  than  about  the  foreigners.  For  instance,  in  one  small 
town  in  which  there  is  a  sanitary-ware  establishment  employing  both 
Americans  and  Slavs,  10  cases  of  lead  poisoning  were  reported  by  the 
doctors  from  among  the  American  workmen,  and  probably  these  were 
all  the  cases  that  had  occurred,  because  all  those  who  spoke  English 
in  the  place  knew  each  other.  Only  one  case  of  a  Slavic  workman 
was  reported  by  a  doctor  and  he  could  not  remember  the  man's  name. 
The  other  doctors  had  seen  Slavs  with  lead  poisoning,  but  could  not 
remember  any  details  about  them. 

In  East  ,  Liverpool,  Trenton,  Zanesville,  Indianapolis,  New 
Brighton,  Chattanooga,  Louisville,  Covington,  and  Ivewport  there  are 
few  or  no  foreigners  employed  and  the  situation  is  much  easier  to 
handle. 

The  second  source  of  supply  wasjaospital  recoxds,  of  some  value 
in  the  larger  cities  with  a  foreign  population,  but  of  little  value  in 
most  smaller  towns,  especially  if  the  workmen  are  Americans.  Usu- 
ally the  hospital  patients  are  Slavs  or  Italians  whose  families  are  in 
the  old  country. 

The  third  method  of  discovering  cases  was  by  examining  the  men. 
It  so  happened  that  at  the  time  this  inquiry  was  made  two  porcelain- 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  43 

enameling  factories  had  strikes,  one  involving  only  the  enamelers, 
the  other  the  whole  force.  These  men  were  quite  willing  to  be  ques- 
tioned  and  examined,  and  as  they  had  all  been  working  up  to  the 
moment  of  the  strike  there  was  an  opportunity  to  discover  what  pro- 
portion of  the  working  force  of  a  factory  are  victims  of  industrial 
lead  poisoning.  A  few  other  cases  were  seen  personally  during  visits 
to  the  homes  of  men  whose  addresses  had  been  furnished  by  doctors. 
Thus,  for  example,  in  the  home  of  a  Polish  enameler  who  had  had  a 
very  bad  attack  of  lead  poisoning  his  young  brother-in-law  was 
found.  The  latter  had  been  employed  for  only  six  months  as  a  helper 
and  said  he  was  not  sick,  but  examination  showed  that  the  lead  line 
was  already  present.  He  admitted  that  he  had  become  very  consti- 
pated and  was  losing  strength,  and  his  sister  testified  that  he  could 
not  eat  his  breakfast,  nor  did  he  care  much  for  lunch.  A  woman  tile 
worker  who  had  had  several  attacks  of  lead  colic  called  in  her  hus- 
band, who  was  working  in  the  glaze  room  at  the  time,  and  he  also  was 
found  to  have  the  lead  line  and  to  be  suffering  from  characteristic 
gastric  and  nervous  symptoms.  Several  of  the  cases  on  our  pottery 
lists  were  personally  examined,  as  well  as  the  larger  number  of 
enamelers. 

The  fourth  method  was  to  collect  inf  ormation_f  rom  the  men  about 
their  own  attacks  of  lea(T~po  ironing  and  about  the  cases  they  had 
knowlT^among  their  fellow  workYnenV  When  the  man  himself  could 
be  seen  it  was  "often  easy  to  determine  whether  the  sickness  he  had 
suffered  from  was  clearly  lead  poisoning  or  was  dubious.  But  when 
the  story  was  at  secondhand  it  had  to  be  taken  with  caution  and 
efforts  made  to  get  corroboration  from  the  doctor  who  had  attended 
the  case.  If  there  was  reason  for  doubt  the  case  was  omitted  from 
the  list.  For  instance,  a  Croatian  enameler  was  seen  who  gave  a 
history  of  four  attacks  of  "  stomach  trouble,"  with  violent  pain  and 
obstinate  constipation.  After  each  attack  he  quit  work,  but  went 
back  later  on.  He  was  very  pale  and  emaciated  and  had  lost  strength, 
his  mouth  was  badly  inflamed,  and,  as  is  often  true  in  that  condition, 
no  lead  line  could  be  detected.  The  case  was  certainly  very  sus- 
picious, but  the  man  was  a  heavy  drinker  and  his  symptoms  might 
have  been  caused  by  alcoholism,  so  he  was  rejected  as  not  proved. 

LEAD   POISONING  IN  WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES. 


This  inquiry  includes  Trenton,  X.  J.,  and  the  part  of  Ohio  and 
West  Virginia  of~which  East  Liverpool~is_ the  center.     Trenton  is  a 

fcly  the 
it  par- 


cit^-wrth  manv  t 
pecn 

ticnlar  industry,  and  there  are  physicians  whose  prncflTBTHJHHttot 
take^^m'limong  pottery  workers  at  all.  The  East  Liverpool  dis- 
trict, however,  is  practically  given  up  to  this  one  trade  and  here 


y  with  many  trades  besides  the  potteriespjafld  conseau^n 
qple  {Tnsg^kral  are/mot  familiar  with  what  happens  iiii  th> 

nlar  industry,  and  there  are  physicians  whose  y . 


44  BULLETIN    OF    THE    BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 

everyone  knows  about  the  potteries,  either  from  personal  experience 
or  from  common  talk,  and  every  doctor  has  potters  and  girl  helpers 
among  his  patients.  For  these  reasons  it  "was  easier  to  trace  cases  of 
lead  poisoning  in  East  Liverpool  than  in  Trenton.  It  was  always 
harder  to  get  information  about  the  women  and  boy  helpers  and  the 
unskilled  laborers  than  about  the  dippers  and  kiln  men,  because  the 
latter  are  a  steady,  organized  body  of  workmen,  whose  names  and 
addresses  can  be  obtained  from  the  Brotherhood  books,  who  are  in 
the  trade  to  stay,  who  know  each  other,  and  who,  finally,  are  not 
afraid  to  answer  questions  inside  the  pottery  even  when  the  manager 
is  present.  On  the  other  hand,  the  women  and  boys  and  the  unskilled 
laborers  are  a  drifting  body  of  working  people,  in  and  out  of  the 
trade  all  the  time.  They  are  unorganized,  nobody  knows  just  how 
many  there  are,  nobody  knows  why  they  drop  out  of  the  glazing 
room  when  they  do;  their  addresses,  often  even  their  surnames,  can 
not  be  learned,  and  they  are  timid  and  distrustful  of  questions  asked 
them  inside  the  pottery. 

A  great  deal  of  information  was  obtained  from  union  officials,  who 
cooperated  heartily  in  the  investigation,  and  it  is  believed  that  the 
information  gathered  about  the  dippers  and  glost-kiln  men  is  fairly 
complete.  For  the  cases  among  the  women  and  girl  and  boy  helpers 
and  the  laborers,  inquiry  was  made  of  53  physicians — 13  in  Trenton,' 
6  in  Salem,  and  34  in  East  Liverpool — and  visits  were  paid  to  the 
homes  of  the  people  whenever  it  was  possible  to  secure  an  address. 

Most  of  the  34  physicians  in  East  Liverpool  who  were  interviewed 
said  that  there  was  still  a  great  deal  of  lead  poisoning  among  the 
pottery  workers  in  this  region,  but  that  there  used  to  be  far  more 
than  now,  and  that  the  cases  now  seen  were  seldom  of  a  serious 
character. 

In  Trenton  only  one  of  the  13  physicians  who  were  visited — a 
man  whose  practice  was  in  a  large  pottery  district — said  that  he  still 
saw  many  cases  of  lead  poisoning.  The  others  all  said  that  they 
had  noticed  a  decided  dropping  off  of  this  sort  of  practice  in  recent 
years,  and  six  had  seen  no  cases  at  all  during  the  last  three  years. 
They  attributed  this  improvement  to  the  smaller  amount  of  lead  used 
in  the  glaze  at  present  (the  impression  as  to  this  is  general,  but  we 
have  no  proof  that  it  is  true) ,  the  gradual  abandonment  of  dangerous 
kinds  of  decorating,  the  increasing  improvement  in  the  standard  of 
living  on  the  part  of  the  workmen,  and  their  increasing  sobriety. 

LEAD    POISONING    AMONG    MALE    EMPLOYEES    IN    WHITE-WARE    POTTERIES. 

To  take  the  men  workers  first,  60  cases  of  poisoning  were  found 
occurring  in  two  j^ears'  time  among  796  men.  Some  of  these  had 
left  the  trade  at  the  time  this  study  was  made,  and  if  only  those 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTEBIES,    TILE   WOEKS,   ETC. 


45 


actually  working  at  the  time  are  counted,  there  are  49  cases  out  of 
796  employed,  or  1  for  every  16  to  17  employed.  These  60  cases  fall 
under  the  following  heads: 

NUMBER    OP    CASES    OF    LEAD    POISONING    IN    TWO    YEARS    AMONG    WORKMEN 
IN  WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES,  BY  OCCUPATIONS. 


Occupation. 


IXipp'ers ?.  .- 

'^Kiln  men 

Decorators 

Helpers  and  "odd  men"  i 

\  Total 


Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Number 
of  male 

em- 
ployees. 

25 
19 
3 
13 

132 
464 
20 

180 

1  This  term  includes  the  men  who  help  mix  the  glaze,  grind  and  transport  it,  and  who 
sweep  the  kiln  rooms  and  mill  rooms. 

The  dippers  evidently  suffer  more  than  any  other  class  of  work- 
men. Of  34  dippers  who  were  personally  interviewed  in  Trenton, 
10  said  that  they  had  had  lead  poisoning,  while  only  6  glost-kiln 
men  out  of  105  admitted  having  been  poisoned.  In  East  Liverpool, 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  secretary-treasurer  of  the  local  dippers' 
union,  it  was  possible  to  examine  the  sickness  records  of  85  dippers 
from  April,  1910,  to  April,  1911.  These  dippers  averaged  19^  years 
in  the  trade  and  their  average  age  was  40  years.  During  the  year  in 
question  13  of  them  had  had  16  attacks  of  lead  poisoning,  3  had  2 
attacks  each  of  colic.  This  is  an  unexpectedly  large  proportion.  In 
the  report  of  the  British  factory  inspection  department  for  1910-11,1 
the  incidence  of  lead  poisoning  among  dippers  is  given  as  13  cases 
out  of  786  men  employed,  exactly  the  same  number  as  in  East  Liver- 
pool among  85  men  employed.  In  other  words,  in  England  1  dipper 
out  of  every  60  suffered  from  lead  poisoning  in  one  year's  time,  in 
Ohio  1  out  of  every  6  or  7. 

The  number  of  odd  men  on  the  list  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  is 
probably  below  the  truth,  because  of  The  great  difficulty  in  finding 
out  anything  about  these  men.  Included  among  the  odd  men  are 
7  men  with  lead  poisoning  who  were  said  to  have  been  employed 
in  the  potteries,  but  whose  occupation  was  not  given  and  who  were 
known' to  be  neither  dippers  nor  kiln  men. 

There  were  many  more  cases  of  lead  poisoning  found  in  East 
Liverpool  in  proportion  to  the  men  employed  than  in  Trenton.  In 
Trenton  about  31-1  men  were  employed  in  work  exposing  them  to 
lead,  and  18  cases  of  lead  poisoning  during  1910  and  1911  were  found, 
or  1  for  every  17  or  18  employed.    Five  had  been  obliged  to  give  up 


1  Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  and  Workshops  for  the  year  1910, 
p.  174. 


46  BULLETIN"    OF    THE   BUEEATJ    OF    LABOE. 

work  because  of  sickness  and  3  had  died,  lead  poisoning  being  given 
as  either  the  primary  or  a  contributory  cause  of  death.  Only  10  of 
the  314  then  working  had  suffered  from  acute  or  chronic  symptoms 
of  lead  poisoning  during  the  past  2  years,  which  would  make  1  in  31 
to  32  of  the  force  employed  at  that  time. 

In  East  Liverpool,  where  about  480  men  are  employed  in  work 
exposing  them  to  lead,  42  cases  during  1910  and  1911  were  discov- 
ered, or  1  for  every  11  to  12  employed.  There  were  31  of  these  work- 
ing at  the  time  of  the  investigation — 1  for  every  15  to  16  employed. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this  difference  between  the  two  dis- 
tricts. One  has  already  been  mentioned — the  greater  difficulty  in 
tracing  the  cases  in  Trenton.  Another  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  varied  industries  of  Trenton  make  it  possible  for  a  man  who 
begins  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  lead  to  go  into  some  other  employ- 
ment, while  in  East  Liverpool  this  is  much  more  difficult.  Another 
reason  is  the  fact  that  more  decorating  is  done  in  East  Liverpool, 
but  the  principal  cause  for  the  relatively  small  amount  of  lead 
poisoning  found  in  Trenton  lies  probably  in  the  fact  that  large  quan- 
tities of  sanitary  ware  are  made  there  and  none  at  all  in  East  Liver- 
pool. Now,  the  sanitary-ware  potteries  are  much  the  least  danger- 
ous ;  first,  because  the  glaze  is  usually  poorer  in  lead  than  in  the  gen- 
eral ware  potteries,  and,  second,  because  there  is  less  dust.  The  large 
pieces  are  sponged  to  get  rid  of  the  excess  glaze  and  are  carried  one 
by  one  to  the  kilns.  There  is  no  dry  rubbing  and  no  dusty  gathering 
and  piling  together  of  ware,  and  no  women's  skirts  stirring  up  dust, 
for  the  employees  are  all  grown  men. 

The  effect  of  the  amount  of  lead  in  glaze  on  the  incidence  of  lead 
poisoning  can  be  seen  in  some  statistics  gathered  in  Trenton,  which 
give  the  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  contracted  during  1910 
and  1911  in  handling  glazes  containing  different  amounts  of  lead : 

CASES  OP  LEAD  POISONING  AMONG  WORKMEN  IN  TRENTON  WHITE-WARE  FAC- 
TORIES  USING  GLAZE   CONTAINING  EACH   CLASSIFIED   AMOUNT   OF   LEAD. 


glaze  used. 

Number 

of 
factories. 

Male  employees. 

Cases  of  lead  poisoning. 

Per  cent  of  lead  in 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Rate  per 
10C0. 

11 

7 

1S8 
126 

60 
40 

5 

11 

31 
(9 

26.6 

87. 3 

Total 

IS 

314 

100 

16 

100 

51.0 

Two  of  the  18  Trenton  cases  could  not  be  placed.  The  42  cases  in 
East  Liverpool  all  came  from  potteries  using  from  12  per  cent  to  20 
per  cent  lead  in  the  glaze. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTEEIES,    TILE   WOEKS,   ETC. 


47 


LEAD  POISONING  AMONG  FEMALE  EMPLOYEES   IN   WHITE-WARE   POTTERIES. 

The  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  found  among  the  women 
was  relatively  larger  than  among  the  men,  and  this  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  it  was  very  much  harder  to  trace  them.  It  seems  certain 
that  although  the  figures  for  men  potters  are  fairly  correct,  those  for 
the  women  must  fall  below  the  truth. 

There  are  about  135  women  employed  in  the  East  Liverpool  dis- 
trict, including  Salem,  as  dippers'  helpers  in  the  glaze  room  and  as 
tinters,  and  15  in  Trenton,  making  150  1  in  all.  Forty-three  cases  of 
lead  poisoning  were  found  to  have  occurred  in  the  last  two  years. 
Twenty-five  of  these  women  were  still  working.  If  it  had  been  pos- 
sible to  interview  personally  every  woman  found  at  work,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  number  of  cases  discovered  would  be  still  larger.  To 
question  the  girls  while  they  were  at  work  without  frightening  them 
into  a  denial  was  no  easy  matter,  and  it  was  still  less  easy  to  find  out 
where  they  lived  so  as  to  interview  them  privately.  Interviews  were 
secured,  however,  with  41,  and  it  was  found  that  11 — a  little  over 
one-third — had  had  lead  poisoning  withing  the  last  two  years.  If 
that  represents  the  usual  proportion,  there  would  be  51  cases  among 
those  now  working  instead  of  25. 


RELATIVE  NUMBER   OF  CASES  AMONG   MEN  AND  WOMEN. 

The  contrast  between  the  men  and  women  in  East  Liverpool  in 
respect  to  the  incidence  of  lead  poisoning  can  be  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 

RATIO  OF  LEAD-POISONING  CASES  OF  EACH  SEX  IN  WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES 
TO   NUMBER   EMPLOYED,   EAST   LIVERPOOL. 


Sex. 

Employees. 

Cases  of  lead 

poisoning,  still 

at  work. 

Ratio   of  cases   to 
employees   of 
each  sex. 

480 
135 

31 
25 

1  to  15  or  16 

But  in  order  to  make  a  fair  comparison  between  the  two  sexes  it 
should  be  limited  to  the  men  and  women  who  are  emplo37ed  in  the 
glaze  room  only,  for  here  both  do  the  same  kind  of  work  and  are 
equally  exposed  to  the  action  of  lead.  This  comparison  may  be  made 
by  taking  the  women  who  were  personally  interviewed  and  the  record 
of  the  dippers'  union,  which  was  quoted  above. 

1  This  figure  is  estimated  by  counting  a  little  more  than  ?>  women  to  every  2  dippers 
in  East  Liverpool,  adding  the  number  found  in  the  few  potteries  visited  in  Trenton  where 
women  helpers  are  employed,  and  the  number  of  women  tinters  in  both  cities  as  far  as 
this  could  be  discovered  by  inquiry. 


48  BULLETIN    OP    THE   BUKEAU    OP    LABOR. 

RATIO   OP   LEAD-POISONING    CASES   AMONG   DIPPERS   AND   DIPPERS'    HELPERS 
IN   WHITE-WARE   POTTERIES   TO  NUMBER   EMPLOYED,   EAST   LIVERPOOL. 


Occupation  and  sex. 


Dippers,  male 

Dippers'  helpers,  female. 


Cases  of  lead 
Employees,     poisoning,  still 
at  work. 


Ratio  of  cases  to 
employees  of 
each  sex. 


1  to  6  or  7 
lto3 


The  contrast  between  the  men  and  women  becomes  still  greater 
when  one  takes  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  average  period  of 
employment  for  the  men  dippers  was  19^  years  and  for  the  women 
helpers  only  2^  years. 

Though  these  figures,  so  far  as  the  women  are  concerned,  are  not 
based  on  complete  evidence,  yet  they  are  probably  not  far  from  the 
truth ;  at  least  the  relative  susceptibility  of  the  two  sexes  is  the  same 
as  that  shown  in  the  Eeport  for  1910  of  the  Chief  Inspectors  of  Fac- 
tories and  Workshops  in  Great  Britain.  This  question  as  to  the  over- 
susceptibility  of  woman  to  lead  poisoning  will  be  taken  up  later  on. 

LEAD  POISONING  IN  ART   AND  UTILITY  WAKE   POTTERIES  AND   IN   TILE 

WOUKS. 

CHARACTER    OF    WORKERS    AND   WAGES    IN    RELATION    TO    LEAD    POISONING. 

It  can  not  be  doubted  that  the  low  wage  paid  in  the  Zanesville 
district,  which  is  the  center  for  this  kind  of  ware,  is  a  factor  in  the 
causation  of  lead  poisoning  among  the  potters.  According  to  physi- 
cians, workpeople,  and  some  townspeople,  the  wages  run  from  85 
cents  a  day  to  $1.65.  Company  officials  and  some  other  townspeople 
say  that  dippers  and  decorators  earn  as  much  as  $2  or  $2.50  a  day, 
but  none  of  the  workmen  who  were  interviewed  were  earning  more 
than  $1.65,  and  one  experienced  male  dipper  had  recently  been  offered 
only  $1.35  per  day.  The  homes  visited  were  in  strong  contrast  to 
those  of  the  dippers  and  kiln  men  in  Trenton  and  East  Liverpool. 
A  further  proof  of  the  comparative  poverty  of  the  Zanesville  potters 
can  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  many  married  women  are  working  in  the 
potteries  with  their  husbands,  a  thing  that  was  not  once  encountered 
in  the  towns  where  the  trade  is  organized. 

The  people  employed  in  these  potteries  are  all  Americans,  but  they 
are  working  for  a  low  wage  and  the  appearance  of  the  men  who  do 
the  dipping  and  kiln  work  is  different  from  that  of  the  men  seen  in 
these  occupations  in  East  Liverpool  and  Trenton.  They  are  much 
younger,  some  of  them  mere  lads,  and  they  do  not  stay  so  long  in  the 
trade.  Fifteen  who  were  interviewed  averaged  only  six  years  of 
employment.  Yet  in  Zanesville  there  is  practically  no  factory  work 
for  Americans  outside  the  potteries  and  tile  works.  The  women  and 
girls  are  in  the  same  class  as  those  in  East  Liverpool,  and  the  same 


LEAD   POISONING  IN"   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  49 

description  would  apply  to  them,  but  the  wage  paid  in  Zanesville  is 
somewhat  lower  than  that  paid  in  East  Liverpool. 

Several  physicians  in  the  Zanesville  district  spoke  in  the  strongest 
terms  of  the  evils  of  Ioav  wages  in  the  potteries,  and  attributed  the 
unhealthfulness  of  the  trade  largely  to  the  poverty  of  the' workpeople. 
This  will  be  gone  into  more  fully  under  the  next  section. 

The  workpeople  employed  in  the  tile  factories  are  almost  all 
Americans,  except  in  two  plants,  one  of  which  employs  Slavic  men 
altogether,  the  other  is  beginning  to  employ  Bulgarians  and  Servians. 
In  Trenton  the  glaze  work  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  girls, 
and  these  girls  apparently  come  from  the  same  class  as  do  the  men 
potters  at  Trenton.  They  are  not  organized  but  they  are  well  paid, 
for  there  is  much  demand  for  girl  workers  in  Trenton.  It  is  evident 
from  visits  paid  to  their  homes  that  they  are  well  fed  and  have  a  high 
standard  of  personal  cleanliness.  They  are  intelligent  and  know 
that  their  work  exposes  them  to  lead  poisoning.  They  say  that  they 
carry  soap  and  towels  with  them  to  the  potteries  so  that  the}'  can  get 
their  hands  clean,  that  they  take  cathartics  regularly  to  keep  off  the 
effects  of  the  lead,  and  that  those  girls  who  feel  ill  from  the  effects 
of  the  work  usually  leave,  since  it  is  not  hard  for  them  to  find  other 
work  in  Trenton. 

GENERAL  BELIEF  AS  TO  FREQUENCY  OF  LEAD  POISONING. 

Probably  these  facts  explain  the  freedom  from  lead  poisoning  in 
the  Trenton  tile  works,  a  freedom  which  was  not  found  anywhere  else. 
In  every  other  city  inquiries  about  lead  poisoning  in  this  work  met 
with  abundant  information  from  the  workpeople  themselves  and  from 
physicians,  but  in  Trenton,  although  vague  reports  concerning  girl 
tile  workers  with  lead  poisoning  were  given  by  a  few  doctors,  only 
one  individual  case  was  recorded  positively  as  having  occurred  during 
the  last  two  years,  though  every  effort  was  made  to  find  such  cases. 
Yet  there  are  50  women  employed  in  the  three  plants  in  this  city. 
Six  girls  were  interviewed  in  their  own  homes,  where  they  would 
have  no  reason  to  be  timid  in  answering  questions,  but  though  they 
had  worked  in  one  or  more  of  these  places  from  three  to  five  years, 
they  knew  of  no  cases  as  recent  as  the  last  two  years.  Two  male 
cases  were  found,  both  of  them  mixers.  One  had  had  an  acute  attack 
and  had  quit  work;  the  other  was  an  old  mixer  with  chronic  lead 
poisoning. 

Outside  of  Trenton  there  is  a  great  deal  of  lead  poisoning  in  the 
tile  works.  There  is  no  organization  among"  these  workpeople,  either 
men  or  women,  and  many  of  the  men  in  all  the  factories  except  the 
one  which  employs  Slavs  are  young,  sometimes  under  18  years  of  age. 
Many  married  women  are  employed  here,  and  many  girls.    They  do 

558S40— 12 4 


50  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF   LABOR. 

not  stay  long  in  the  trade,  even  though  it  is  hard  in  some  towns  to 
find  other  work.  Twenty-five  men  averaged  a  little  over  three  years' 
employment;  31  girls  averaged  2.9  years.  "Wages  are  very  low,  run- 
ning, it  is  said,  from  85  cents  a  day  up  to  $1.65.  One  dipper  lias 
worked  for  28  years  in  the  glaze  department  of  a  tile  works,  and 
his  wages  have  never  been  above  the  latter  sum.  The  homes  of  the 
tile  workers  that  were  visited  were  poor,  and  often  the  women  were 
working  after  marriage  because  the  husband's  wages  were  not  enough 
to  support  the  family.  In  one  house  it  was  found  that  two  young 
married  couples  were  working  in  a  tile  factory,  while  the  mother 
of  the  two  men  kept  house  and  took  care  of  the  child  of  one  couple. 
The  mother  of  this  child  said  that  she  had  given  up  work 'several 
times,  but  had  always  been  obliged  to  go  back  because  the  family 
could  "  make  both  ends  meet "  only  under  the  most  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, and  even  a  slight  illness  was  enough  to  throw  her  into 
debt  and  force  her  to  return  to  the  works. 

Many  physicians  spoke  in  strong  terms  of  the  evils  of  low  wages 
in  the  tile  works  and  art  potteries,  and  attributed  the  sickness  among 
the  pottery  workers  largely  to  poverty.  One  of  them  said:  "There 
is  absolutely  no  care  taken  in  the  tile  works  or  potteries.  Lead 
poisoning  is  very  common  in  Zanesville,  though  the  severer  forms  are 
not  often  seen.  The  only  thing  that  keeps  the  situation  from  becom- 
ing really  terrible  is  that  the  men  can  shift  to  other  departments  in 
the  pottery  and  the  girls  are  apt  to  marry.  The  poverty  is  very 
great,  the  workpeople  are  underfed,  and  underdo thed."  Another 
Zanesville  physician  said  that  there  was  a  great  deal  of  lead  poison- 
ing, not  only  the  pronounced  forms  but  the  obscurer  forms,  anemia, 
chlorosis,  nervous  troubles,  and  digestive  disturbances.  He  thought 
that  he  saw  almost  100  men  and  girls  in  the  course  of  a  year  affected 
by  work  in  lead.  Many  girls  and  boys  employed  in  the  tile  works 
are  still  in  their  teens  and  especially  liable  to  the  poison.  Still  a 
third  physician  said,  "  I  see  more  men  with  characteristic  symptoms 
than  girls,  but  often  I  see  a  dozen  girls  of  a  Saturday  afternoon 
complaining  of  anemia  and  constipation,  which  I  attribute  to  mild 
chronic  plumbism.  Some  of  them  also  have  amenorrhea,  undoubtedly 
due  to  lead  anemia.  The  fact  that  the  workpeople  shift  all  the  time 
to  other  jobs  in  the  tile  works  explains  why  there  are  not  more  severe 
cases.  Wages  are  very  low.  Girls  get  from  $1  to  $6  per  week,  and 
pay  from  $2.50  to  $3  for  board.  This  is  the  worst  feature  of  the 
trade." 

In  all,  21  doctors  were  interviewed  in  or  near  Zanesville.  Sixteen 
were  emphatic  as  to  the  evils  of  this  sort  of  work  and  the  prevalence 
of  lead  poisoning,  3  were  dubious,  and  2  were  quite  positive  that  it 
was  a  thing  of  the  past  and  that  the  tile  works  were  now  all  that 
they  should  be. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  51 

The  following  is  the  substance  of  a  characteristic  interview  with 
a  woman  who  worked  in  the  glaze  department  of  a  Zanesville  tile 
works:  She  worked  for  three  months  brushing;  that  is,  removing 
the  excess  of  glaze  from  the  tile  after  it  was  dried,  with  a  brush. 
After  three  months  she  had  an  attack  of  lead  colic  and  had  to  quit 
work.  She  went  back  and  worked  for  two  years  more  but  could  not 
stand  it  and  is  now  in  the  pressroom.  She  earned  85  cents  a  day. 
The  room  is  terribly  dusty  and  there  is  no  way  of  heating  it,  except 
when  a  kiln  is  drawn;  then  the  heat  is  driven  through  pipes  under 
the  floor.  Between  kiln  drawings  in  winter  they  suffer  a  great  deal 
from  the  cold,  and  in  summer  they  suffer  from  heat  whenever  a  kiln 
is  drawn.  At  the  end  of  the  day  they  always  brushed  the  tables, 
swept  into  a  pile  the  glaze  dust  that  had  fallen  on  the  floor,  and 
then  brushed  their  clothes  with  the  same  brush.  There  was  so  much 
dust  in  the  air  then  that  she  would  almost  choke.  They  had  to  wear 
some  of  their  street  clothes  in  winter  to  work  in  because  it  was  so 
cold,  and  when  they  got  home  they  could  always  shake  the  dust  out 
of  their  skirts.  She  wore  a  cap  to  keep  the  dust  from  her  hair,  but 
somehow  it  always  looked  dusty.  About  half  the  women  working 
there  are  married.  They  eat  their  lunch  wherever  they  can  find  a 
warm  place,  and  they  wash  their  hands  when  they  can,  but  the  water 
is  icy  cold  in  winter.  Her  husband  works  in  the  same  place.  He  had 
pneumonia  last  fall,  and  they  are  still  in  debt  for  that.  This  woman 
gave  the  names  of  one  man  and  three  girls  working  there  who 
recently  suffered  from  lead  colic.  Her  brother-in-law  is  a  placer  in 
this  factory  and  works  in  the  glaze  room.  He  has  been  there  18 
months.  He  now  suffers  from  indigestion,  he  can  not  eat  his  break- 
fast, has  a  bad  taste  in  his  mouth  in  the  morning,  has  lost  weight 
and  strength,  and  has  fits  of  trembling  in  his  limbs  so  that  he  feels 
"  like  he  must  nail  himself  together  or  he  will  fall  apart."  This 
man  has  the  lead  line  on  his  gums.  His  wife  also  works  in  the  tile 
factory ;  she  has  to  because  his  pay  is  so  low. 

Zanesville  is  used  to  illustrate  conditions  because  there  is  more  of 
this  work  done  there  than  in  any  other  one  town,  but  what  has  been 
said  of  it  applies  to  all  other  places  studied  except  Trenton,  where 
conditions  are  markedly  better.  Two  factories,  one  in*  Newport,  Ky., 
and  one  in  Chicago  Heights,  employ  no  women. 

NUMBER  OF  CASES  OF  LEAD  POISONING  FOUND. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  separate  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
contracted  in  the  tile  works  from  those  contracted  in  the  art  and 
utility  potteries.  Zanesville,  which  is  the  center  for  the  latter  in- 
dustry, has  also  three  tile  factories,  and  the  physicians  who  see  cases 
of  lead  poisoning  know  that  their  patients  are  working  in  glaze 
rooms,  but  often  do  not  know  what  establishment  they  come  from. 
The  following  list  of  cases,  therefore,  includes  those  found  in  the  11 


52 


BULLETIN    OP    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR, 


tile  factories  studied  and  in  the  7  art  and  utility  ware  potteries  of 
the  Zanesville  district. 

In  the  11  tile  works  138  men  and  204  women  are  employed;  in  the 
7  potteries  166  men  and  39  women,  making  301  men  and  243  women 
in  occupations  exposing  them  to  lead,  The  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
must  be  given  without  regard  to  occupation  because  it  was  usually 
impossible  to  find  out  what  particular  work  the  individual  was 
engaged  in. 

NUMBER  OF  WORKPEOPLE  AND  OP  LEAD  POISONING  CASES  IN  11  TILE  FAC- 
TORIES AND  7  YELLOW  WARE  AND  ART  AND  UTILITY  WARE  POTTERIES. 
ZANESVILLE   DISTRICT,   BY   SEN. 


Sex. 

Number 
employed. 

Cases  of  lead 

poisoning,  1910 

and  1911. 

Cases  of  lead 
poisoning,  1911. 

301 
243 

63 
35 

43 

28 

Total 

547 

98 

76 

FREQUENCY   OF   LEAD   POISONING  IN   WHITE-WARE   POTTERLES   AND  IN    ART 
AND  UTILITY  WARE  POTTERIES  AND  THE  WORKS. 

If  the  number  of  men  poisoned  in  1910-11  in  these  two  classes  of 
potteries  are  compared  with  the  number  of  men  poisoned  in  the 
white-ware  potteries,  the  influence  which  the  large  percentage  of 
lead  in  the  glaze  and  the  poverty  of  the  workmen  have  on  the  inci- 
dence of  industrial  lead  poisoning  becomes  apparent.  The  women  are 
omitted  from  the  comparison  because  the  white-ware  women  workers 
are  no  better  off  than  those  employed  in  art  and  utility  potteries  and 
tile  works,  with  the  exception  of  the  difference  in  the  glaze,  but  the 
men  in  white  ware  are  markedly  better  off  than  those  in  the  art 
potteries  and  tile  works.  Indeed,  the  women  in  white-ware  potteries 
are  all  exposed  to  the  dangers  of  dusty  work,  while  many  women  tile 
workers  are  engaged  in  simply  placing  the  glazed  tiles  in  saggers  or 
in  tending  different  machines. 

FREQUENCY  OF  LEAD  POISONING  CASES  IN   WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES  AND  IN 
YELLOW  WARE  AND  ART  AND  UTILITY  WARE  POTTERIES  AND  TILE  WORKS. 


Industry. 

Men 
employed. 

Cases  of  lead 

poisoning  in  2 

years. 

Ratio  of  cases 
of  lead  poison- 
ing to  number 
of  employees. 

796 
304 

60 
63 

1  to  13 

Yellow  ware  and  art  and  utility  ware  and  tile  works 

1  to  4  or  5 

This  table  shows  that  the  work  in  the  last  class  of  industries  is 
almost  three  times  as  dangerous  as  in  the  first.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  discovery  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  in  these  unorganized 


LEyVD  poisoning  in  potteries,  tile  works,  etc. 


53 


industries  was  much  mere  difficult  than  in  the  organized  potteries 
of  Trenton  and  East  Liverpool,  but  it  must  also  be  remembered  that 
the  labor  in  the  unorganized  factories  is  more  shifting  and  a  larger 
number  of  men  were  undoubtedly  employed  during  those  two  years 
than  our  figures  indicate. 


FREQUENCY  OF  LEAD  POISONING  IN  BRITISH  AND  IN  AMERICAN  POTTERIES. 

Even  the  white-ware  potteries  alone  have  an  amount  of  lead 
poisoning  far  in  excess  of  that  reported  for  all  potteries  in  Great 
Britain.1  Occupations  here  are  differently  divided  and  between  the 
two  countries  workmen  can  not  be  compared  class  by  class,  but  totals 
may  be  compared  as  follows : 

FREQUENCY  OF  LEAD-POISONING  CASES  IN  EACH  SEX  IN  ALL  POTTERIES, 
GREAT  BRITAIN,  1910,  AND  IN  WHITE-WARE  POTTERIES,  UNITED  STATES, 
1911. 


All  potteries,  Great  Britain. 

White-ware  potteries,  United 
States,  1911. 

Sex. 

Number 

employed 

in  1907. 

Cases  of 

lead 
poison- 
ing, 1910. 

Ratio  of 

cases  of  lead 

poisoning  to 

number  of 

employees. 

Number 
employed. 

Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Ratio  of 

cases  of  lead 

poisoning  to 

number  of 

employees. 

4,504 
2,361 

40 
37 

1  to  113 
1  to  64 

796 
150 

39 
29 

Females 

Total 

6,865                77 

1  to  89 

946 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning  among  the  men 
and  women  in  American  white-ware  potteries  number  about  six  times 
as  many  as  in  all  the  British  potteries  and  that  the  women  here 
suffer  more  than  twelve  times  as  much  as  do.  the  English  women 
workers.  Comparing  individual  classes  of  working  people,  as  can  be 
done  in  a  few  instances,  the  following  is  found : 

FREQUENCY  OF  LEAD-POISONING  CASES  IN  SELECTED  OCCUPATIONS,  BY  SEX, 
ALL  POTTERIES,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  1910,  AND  WHITE- WARE  POTTERIES, 
UNITED   STATES,   1911. 


Ail  potteries,  Great  Britain. 

White-ware  notteries.  United 
States,  1911. 

Occupation  and  sex. 

Employees 
in  1907. 

Cases  of 

lead 
poison- 
ing, 1910. 

Ratio  of 

cases  of  lead 

poisoning  to 

number  of 

employees. 

Employees. 

Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Ratio  of 
cases  of  lead 
poisoning  to 
number  of 
employees. 

Dippers,  male 

Dippers'  helpers  and  cleaners, 

7S6 
85S 

13 

21 

1  to  60  or  61 

lto  41 

132 
135 

18 
26 

lto  7 

1  to  5 

1  Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  and  Workshops  for  the  year  1910, 
p.   174. 


54 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOE. 


The  contrast  is  even  greater  when  all  the  American  pottery  workers 
are  included,  as,  indeed,  must  be  done  if  a  fair  comparison  is  to  be 
made,  for  the  British  report  covers  yellow  ware,  Rockingham, 
majolica,  tile  works,  etc. 

FREQUENCY    OF    LEAD-POISONING    CASES    IN    EACH    SEX,    IN    ALL    POTTERIES, 
GREAT  BRITAIN,   1910,  AND  IN  POTTERIES  VISITED,  UNITED   STATES,   1911. 


All  potteries,  Great  Britain. 

Potteries  visited,  United  States,  1S11. 

Sex. 

Employees 
in  1907. 

Cases  of 

lead 
poison- 
ing, 1910. 

Ratio  of 

cases  of  lead 
poisoning  to 
number  of 
employees. 

Employees. 

Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Ratio  of 
cases  of  lead 
poisoning  to 
number  of 
employees. 

Males         

4,504 
2,361 

40 
37 

1  to  113 
1  to  64 

1,100 
393 

87 
57 

1  to  12  or  13 

1  to  7 

Total 

6,865 

77 

1  toS9 

1,493 

144 

1  to  10  or  11 

With  less  than  one-quarter  of  the  workpeople,  American  potteries 
have  almost  twice  as  many  cases  of  lead  poisoning.  This  result  was 
entirely  unexpected,  for  everywhere  in  the  pottery  districts  in  this 
country  one  is  told  that  lead  poisoning  is  much  less  serious  than  it  is 
in  Great  Britain,  and  the  reasons  given  are  that  living  conditions  are 
better  here  and  there  is  less  alcoholism,  but  chiefly  that  there  is  more 
lead  in  the  British  glaze.  The  people  who  give  this  information  are 
themselves  Staffordshire  men  and  have  learned  the  trade  over  there. 
They  are  describing  a  state  of  things  that  undoubtedly  existed  for- 
merly in  the  Staffordshire  potteries  but  which  no  longer  exists.  Of 
late  years,  as  the  British  reports  show,  there  has  been  a  great  decline 
in  this  form  of  industrial  poisoning  in  Great  Britain,1  while  in  this 
country,  though  there  has  been  some  improvement,  especially  in  the 
making  of  white  ware,  it  has  not  been  nearly  so  great. 

If  American  wages  are  higher,  living  conditions  better,  and  the 
workmen  more  temperate,  these  advantages  seem  to  be  more  than 
offset  by  the  lack  of  sanitary  control  over  the  potteries  and  the  low 
standard  of  sanitary  conditions.  The  glaze  used  in  the  Staffordshire 
potteries,  in  which  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning  reported  for  1010 
occurred,  contained  from  11.2  per  cent  to  33.1  per  cent  soluble  lead.2 
In  American  potteries  the  lead  content  ran  from  5  per  cent  up  to  60 
per  cent,  but  the  lack  of  hygienic  control  in  the  United  States  is  much 
more  important  than  the  larger  amount  of  lead  in  the  glaze.  There 
is  no  freedom  from  lead  poisoning  even  in  those  American  potteries 
which  use  the  smallest  proportion  of  lead.     The  enormous  difference 

1  See  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  95,  p.  44. 

2  Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  and  Workshops  for  the  year  1910, 
p.  43. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC. 


55 


between  the  number  of  lead-poisoning  cases  here  and  in  Great  Britain 
is  due  not  so  much  to  the  control  exercised  over  the  amount  of  lead  in 
the  glaze  as  to  the  strict  regulations  which  there  govern  the  hygiene 
of  the  trade. 


SEVEEITY   OF   LEAD   POISONING  IN    BRITISH   AND   IN    AMERICAN   POTTERIES, 

Although  the  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  is  much  greater  in 
this  country,  yet  apparently  the  more  serious  forms  of  the  disease  are 
not  so  frequent  here  as  in  England.  Perhaps  this  is  one  reason  for 
the  popular  belief  that  lead  poisoning  is  much  greater  in  Staffordshire 
than  in  Ohio  and  New  Jersey. 

The  English  expert.  Dr.  T.  M.  Legge,  classifies x  cases  of  industrial 
lead  poisoning  under  three  heads — 

Slight:   (1)   Colic  short  and  uncomplicated;  (2)   anemia  in  ado- 
lescence, aggravated  by  employment. 
Moderate :   (1)  A  combination  of  colic  and  anemia  ;  (2)  profound 
anemia,   apparently  without   complications;    (3)    slight  mus- 
cular paresis,  i.  e.,  incipient  paralysis. 
Severe:   (1)   Encephalopathy;    (2)   marked  paralysis. 
He  divides  as  follows  217  male  cases  and  280  female  cases  occurring 
in  Great  Britain  in  the  five  years  1903  to  1907 : 

NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT  IN  EACH  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LEAD  POISONING  CASES  IN 
BRITISH  POTTERIES,  1903  TO  1907,  BY  SEX. 


Males. 

Females. 

Classification. 

Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Per  cent. 

Cases  of 
•  lead 
poison- 
ing. 

Per  cent. 

Severe 

42 
97 
77 

1 

19.4 

44.7 

35.5 

.5 

35 

97 

144 

4 

12.5 
34.6 

51.4 
1.4 

Moderate 

Slight 

Not  stated 

Total , 

217 

280 

The  death  rate  in  11  years,  1899-1909,  averaged  1.11  for  every 
1,000  men  employed,  and  0.85  for  every  1,000  women.2 

Only  a  partial  classification  can  be  made  of  the  cases  among  Ameri- 
can workers  under  these  heads  for  lack  of  accurate  information  con- 
cerning most  of  them.  Among  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning  that 
occurred  in  1911  in  the  potteries,  histories  were  secured  of  86  men 

1  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  Appointed  to  Inquire  into  the  Dangers  Attend- 
ant on  the  Use  of  Lead  in  the  Manufacture  of  Earthenware  and  China,  Home  Department. 
1910,  Vol.  I,  p.  11. 

2  Idem,  Vol.  II,  p.  39. 


56 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUKEAU    OP    LABOR. 


and  51  women,  which  are  full  enough  to  permit  of  dividing  them 
under  these  heads. 

NUMBER  AND   PER    CENT   IN   EACH    CLASSIFICATION   OF    137   LEAD    POISONING 
CASES   IN  THE  UNITED   STATES,   1911,   BY   SEX. 


Classification. 

Males. 

Females. 

Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Per  cent. 

Cases  of 
lead 

poison- 
ing. 

Per  cent. 

7 
39 
40 

8.1 
45.3 

46.5 

6 

14 
31 

11.8 

27.5 

60.8 

Total 

86 

51 

The  percentage  of  severe  cases  among  the  men  in  this  table  is  not 
nearly  so  high  as  in  the  British  table.  The  cases  among  the  women 
are  distributed  more  nearly  as  among  the  English  women,  but  it  is 
very  probable  that  many  slight  cases  among  women  and  girls  were 
not  reported. 

The  deaths  for  2  years  were  3,  all  men,  among  1,500  employed,  or 
1.5  for  each  year,  which  is  about  the  same  as  the  English  death  rate. 
There  were  no  fatal  cases  found  among  women  during  these  years. 

RELATIVE  FREQUENCY  OF  LEAD  POISONING  IN  MEN  AND  IN  WOMEN. 

The  British  authorities  insist  that  there  is  a  true  sex  susceptibility 
to  lead  poisoning,  women  being  more  prone  to  it  than  men.1  One 
physician  stated  that  men  are  more  liable  to  the  chronic,  and  women 
to  the  acute  forms,  such  as  colic  and  encephalopathy.2  The  cases  of 
encephalopathy  found  in  this  investigation  among  pottery  workers 
confirm  this  last  statement,  for  9  out  of  14  cases  of  this  severe  form  of 
lead  poisoning,  and  all  of  the  three  fatal  cases,  were  women.  (Some 
of  these  14  cases  occurred  earlier  than  1910.)  At  first  sight  it  would 
seem  that  the  figures  of  this  study  bear  out  also  the  statement  that 
women  are  more  susceptible  to  lead  poisoning  than  men,  for  there  are 
57  cases  among  400  women,  or  1  to  7,  and  only  87  among  1,100  men,  or 
1  to  12  or  13,  but  a  closer  analysis  shows  that  there  are  factors  influ- 
encing this  difference  other  than  the  factor  of  sex. 

In  East  Liverpool  and  Trenton  the  relative  proportion  of  male  and 
female  cases  more  than  bears  out  the  English  theory.  Seven  hundred 
and  ninety-six  men  had  39  cases,  or  1  to  every  20  or  21,  and  150 
women  had  29  cases,  or  1  to  every  5  or  6  employed   (1911).     But 


1  Report  of  the  Departmental  Committee  Appointed  to  Inquire  into  the  Dangers  Attend- 
ant on  the  Use  of  Lead  in  the  Manufacture  of  Earthenware  and  China,  Home  Department, 
1910,  Vol.  I,  p.  12. 

2  Idem,  Vol.  Ill,   Q.   1254. 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTEKIES,    TILE   WOEKS,   ETC.  57 

it  has  been  seen  that  in  those  districts  where  white  ware  is  made  and 
the  National  Brotherhood  of  Operative  Potters  holds  sway  the  women 
have  many  handicaps  as  compared  with  the  men  besides  that  of  sex 
idiosyncrasy.  They  are  unorganized,  underpaid,  poorly  housed,  poorly 
fed,  subject  to  the  worry  and  strain  of  supporting  dependents  on  a 
low  wage,  while  the  men  are  prosperous  and  independent.  In  the 
unorganized  pottery  fields,  however,  in  the  tile  works  and  art  pot- 
teries, men  and  women  are  in  the  same  economic  class,  all  making  low 
wages,  with  everything  that  that  implies,  and  here  no  such  dispropor- 
tion is  found  between  the  two  sexes  in  the  matter  of  lead  poisoning. 
In  the  establishments  that  were  studied  there  were  in  1911  304  men 
employed  and  48  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  or  1  for  every  6  to  7  men; 
243  women  were  employed,  and  there  were  28  cases  found,  or  1  for 
every  8  or  9.  The  ratio  of  cases  is  actually  greater  among  the  men. 
Of  course,  these  figures  are  offered  very  tentatively,  realizing  that 
they  can  in  no  way  be  compared  with  the  British,  which  are  based 
on  a  medical  examination  of  all  men  and  women  employed  and  on 
accurate  records  as  to  the  number  of  employees  during  the  year.  The 
results  obtained  in  this  investigation  can  only  be  suggestive ;  they  are 
given  simply  because  the  contrast  between  the  number  of  male  cases 
in  East  Liverpool  and  Trenton  and  those  in  unorganized  branches  of 
the  trade  is  too  great  to  be  accidental  and  does  seem  to  point  to  the 
influence  of  poverty  as  a  predisposing  factor  in  lead  poisoning  even 
greater  than  sex. 

In  discussing  the  relative  frequency  of  lead  poisoning  among  men 
and  women,  several  physicians  in  the  unorganized  pottery  towns 
said  that  they  saw  more  male  cases  than  female,  and  one  of  them 
explained  this  fact  by  the  universal  habit  of  tobacco  chewing  among 
the  men.  Most  of  the  men,  he  said,  use  scrap  tobacco,  carrying  it 
in  the  pocket  of  their  working  clothes  and  handling  it  with  fingers 
covered  with  glaze.  A  great  many  of  them  believe  that  chewing 
tobacco  helps  to  keep  them  from  getting  poisoned.  Two  other 
doctors  said  that  while  they  saw  more  men  with  the  typical  gastric 
form  of  lead  poisoning,  they  saw  large  numbers  of  women  and 
young  girls  with  less  pronounced  and  characteristic  symptoms  which 
they,  however,  attributed  to  the  lead,  such  as  profound  anemia  with 
constipation  and  sometimes  amenorrhea.  Now,  it  is  mere  than 
probable  that  many  of  these  cases  were  not  revealed  in  the  course 
of  this  study,  for  the  majority  of  physicians  hesitate  to  speak  of 
lead  poisoning  if  there  is  no  colic.  The  British  statistics,  however, 
include  just  this  class  of  cases:  "Anemia  of  adolescence  aggravated 
by  employment,"  Certainly  it  is  probable  that  this  is  one  reason 
for  the  discrepancy  between  the  results  obtained  here  as  regards 
female  cases  and  the  results  obtained  there. 


58  BULLETIN    OF    THE    BTJEEAU    OF    LABOB. 

No  evidence  was  secured  as  to  the  influence  of  lead  on  women  as 
an  abortifaeient.  Miscarriages  are  very  common  among  these 
women  pottery  workers,  but  physicians  and  the  women  themselves  say 
that  so  many  are  mechanically  self -induced  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  discover  the  part  played  by  the  lead.  The  women  feel  obliged 
to  work  after  marriage,  and  they  consider  it  economically  impos- 
sible to  have  more  than  one  or  two  children  at  the  most.  They  do 
not,  for  the  most  part,  know  that  lead  glaze  has  an  abortifaeient 
action. 

LEAD    POISONING    IN    THE    MAKING    OP    PORCELAIN    ENAMELED 
IRON  SANITARY  WARE. 

More  difficulty  was  found  in  tracing  cases  of  lead  poisoning  in 
this  industry  than  in  the  pottery  industry  proper,  because  so  many 
of  the  workmen  are  non-English-speaking  Slavs.  A  very  large  num- 
ber of  cases  were  reported,  but  when  corroborative  evidence  was 
sought  it  was  often  found  that  the  man  had  gone  back  to  Austria, 
or  had  moved  on  to  one  of  the  other  centers  of  the  trade,  or  that  he 
was  timid  and  suspicious,  refusing  to  answer  any  questions.  Chicago 
and  Pittsburgh  offered  the  greatest  difficulty,  because  all  the  force 
employed  there  is  of  this  character,  and  the  men  are  scattered  all 
over  the  foreign  colonies.  To  give  an  instance  of  the  trouble  ex- 
perienced, there  were  96  cases  reported  in  1  city  as  having  occurred 
in  the  last  2  years.  Thirty-seven  of  these  could  be  traced  to  the 
physicians  near  the  plant,  11  were  on  hospital  records,  2  were  per- 
sonally examined,  but  46  were  unverified  cases,  depending  only  on 
the  statement  of  men  who  had  departed  or  who  refused  to  let  them- 
selves be  examined. 

It  has  seemed  best,  therefore,  to  give  a  statement  as  to  the  source 
of  these  cases  side  by  side  with  the  list  of  cases. 
f  In  all  of  these  towns,  except  one  large  town  with  a  small  factory 
.employing  only  Slavs,  the  fact  that  sanitary-ware  enamelers  suffer 
from  lead  poisoning  is  notorious,  and  physicians  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  plant  are  able  to  tell  of  cases  of  severe  colic,  of  palsy,  and 
even  of  encephalopathy,  for  the  form  of  lead  poisoning  seen  among 
these  men  is  often  severe.  The  statement  was  repeatedly  made  by 
physicians  that  "  one  man  in  every  three,"  "  at  least  one-half  of  all 
the  men,"  "  all  of  them  who  stay  any  length  of  time,"  suffer  from 
lead  poisoning. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  men  employed  in  the 
glaze  departments  of  the  10  plants  which  are  included  in  this  study, 
the  number  of  cases  occurring  in  the  2  years  covered  by  the  inquir3r, 
1910  and  1911,  the  number  in  a  single  year,  1911,  the  proportion  of 
people  then  working  who  had  recently  suffered  from  lead  poisoning, 
and  the  sources  from  which  the  cases  were  obtained : 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC. 


59 


NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYEES  AND  OF  LEAD-POISONING  CASES,  AND  RATIO  OF 
CASES  TO  NUMBER  EMPLOYED,  IN  GLAZE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  10  PORCELAIN 
ENAMELED    IRON   SANITARY- WARE    PLANTS. 


Number. 


Ratio  of 
|lead-poison- 

I    ing  cases 
to  number 
of  em- 
ployees. 


EMPLOYEES. 

In  mills 

Enamelers 

Total 

LEAD-POISONING  CASES. 

In  1S10  and  1911 

In  1911: 

Reported  by  doctors 

Reported  by  hospitals 

Found  by  examination , 

Reported  by  men 

Total 

Cases  among  force  still  at  work  in  1911 


112 
900 


303 


106 
15 
65 
30 


217 
199 


1  to  3.3 


1  to  4.7 
1  to  5.1 


The  same  warning  must  be  given  here  as  in  the  chapter  on  lead 
poisoning  in  the  potteries,  namely,  that  the  number  of  men  employed 
in  this  work  in  the  course  of  a  year  is  undoubtedly  greater  than 
1,012  because  helpers  drop  out  frequently  and  enamelers  leave  work 
when  they  are  incapacitated  or  frightened  by  illness;  and,  also,  that 
the  number  of  men  poisoned  is  probably  larger  than  309,  for  even 
with  the  best  of  efforts  discovery  of  all  the  cases  can  not  be  expected. 
This  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  the  number  for  two  years,  1910  and  1911, 
is  not  nearly  double  the  number  for  the  single  year  1911;  yet  lead 
poisoning  is  probably  not  on  the  increase.  The  large  number  of  cases 
in  1911  simply  means  that  these  were  still  in  the  memory  of  physi- 
cians or  still  at  work  in  the  plant,  while  some  of  those  who  had  been 
ill  in  1910  had  gone  away  and  been  forgotten.  It  is  probable  that  a 
number  double  that  for  1911,  or  434,  would  be  nearer  the  truth  for  the 
two  years  than  309.  The  difficulty  in  tracing  these  older  cases  was 
especially  great  in  Chicago  and  Pittsburgh,  with  their  large  pro- 
portion of  shifting  foreign  workpeople  with  unfamiliar  names.  In 
smaller  towns,  with  American  workmen,  the  names  of  workpeople 
are  fairly  well  remembered. 

INTENSIVE  STUDY  OF  148  MEN. 

If  the  most  rigid  standard  be  applied  to  the  table  given  above,  and 
only  those  cases  accepted  which  were  obtained  from  the  records  of 
physicians  and  hospitals,  we  should  still  have  121  in  a  force  of  1,012, 
or  one  man  for  every  eight  or  nine  emploj^ed.  It  seems  impossible, 
however,  that  the  number  should  be  as  low  as  that,  for  it  has  been 
made  evident  that  all  the  cases  occurring  in  a  given  year  Could  not 


60  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUKEAU    OE    LABOB. 

be  brought  to  light  by  the  methods  outlined  above.  That  the  num- 
ber is  below  the  truth,  that  those  physicians  come  nearer  to  it  who 
assert  that  one  man  in  every  three  is  poisoned  by  the  lead,  would  ap- 
pear from  the  results  of  a  physical  examination  and  an  examination 
of  the  histories  of  148  men  who  at  the  time  this  investigation  was 
made  happened  to  be  out  on  strike.  These  men  were  not  acutely 
sick  and  they  had  all  been  at  work  up  to  a  few  days  before  the  ex- 
amination. They  were  Slavs,  many  of  them  powerfully  built  peas- 
ants, and  they  were  employed  in  two  factories,  one  of  which  was  un- 
usually dusty  while  the  other  was  said  to  be  fairly  clean. 

In  making  the  diagnosis  of  chronic  lead  poisoning  no  one  symptom 
can  be  taken  as  positively  characteristic.  The  diagnosis  must  depend 
upon  a  combination  of  symptoms  and  physical  signs,  together  with 
the  fact  that  the  man's  occupation  has  exposed  him  to  lead.  The 
detection  of  granular  changes  in  the  red  blood  cells  is  looked  on  as  a 
great  help  in  diagnosis  by  most  German  authorities,  but  Oliver,  the 
English  authority,  does  not  find  this  test  of  value,  and  Biondi,  an 
Italian  authority  on  blood,  says  that  it  helps  in  the  diagnosis  when  it 
is  present,  but  that  its  absence  can  not  be  taken  as  a  proof  against 
lead  poisoning.  Oliver  and  certain  German  writers  advise  the  search 
for  lead  in  the  urine ;  other  Germans  say  that  its  presence  is  not  con- 
stant enough  to  make  this  a  trustworthy  test. 

As  for  the  symptoms  which  constitute  a  picture  of  chronic  lead 
poisoning,  the  following  are  given  by  the  principal  modern  authori- 
ties: K.  v.  Jacksch  says:  "In  typical  cases,  in  spite  of  the  variety 
of  the  symptoms,  diagnosis  is  always  easy.  The  presence  of  the  lead 
line  in  a  man  working  in  lead  and  a  history  of  colic  makes  it  cer- 
tain."1 As  symptoms  he  gives  various  disturbances  of  digestion, 
sense  of  oppression  in  the  stomach,  vomiting,  loss  of  appetite,  metallic 
taste  in  the  mouth,  anemia. 

Oliver  describes  the  symptoms  as  pallor  and  sallowness,  with  me- 
tallic taste,  especially  in  the  morning,  and  says :  "  If  the  distaste  for 
food  is  increasing,  the  individual  should  retire  or  be  suspended  from 
work,  for  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  indications  of  the  resistance  to  lead 
having  become  diminished.  There  may  also  be  complaint  of  a  feel- 
ing of  sickness  and  a  tendency  to  vomit.  Obstinate  constipation  and 
a  sense  of  tiredness  out  of  proportion  to  the  amount  of  energy  ex- 
pended are  also  complained  of." 2 

Laureck 3  says  that  if  a  lead  worker  whose  digestion  has  been  good 
begins  to  suffer  from  chronic  loss  of  appetite,  more  or  less  coated 
tongue,  disagreeable  sweet  taste,  foul  breath,  eructation  of  gas,  and 
general  lassitude,  one  would  seldom  go  wrong  in  making  the  diag- 

1  Nothnagel*s  Spezielle  Pathologie  und  Therapie,  Vol.  I.  1910,  p.  194. 

2  Bulletin  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  95,  p.  9S. 

3  Theodor  Weyl,  Handbuch  der  Arbeiterkrankheiten,  Jena,  1903,  p.  43. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN    POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  61 

nosis  of  lead  poisoning,  even  if  the  lead  line  (absent  in  men  who  have 
lost  their  teeth)  and  the  anemia  have  not  yet  appeared.  Absolutely 
certain  diagnostic  symptoms  for  lead  poisoning  do  not  exist.. 

Dr.  Albert  Fleck,  a  German  authority  on  industrial  diseases,  says 
that  "  if  a  lead  worker  complains  of  weakness,  trembling,  loss  of 
weight,  foul  breath,  oppressive  feeling  in  the  stomach,  itching  of  the 
eyelids,  and  spots  floating  before  the  eyes,  a  diagnosis  of  lead  poison- 
ing is  probable.    The  presence  of  a  lead  line  makes  it  certain." 

If  we  combine  these  varying  statements  we  find  that  a  fairly 
definite  picture  emerges,  but  no  one  feature  of  the  picture  is  essen- 
tial. The  blue-black  line  along  the  margin  of  the  gums  is  a  valuable 
help  in  diagnosis,  but  is  not  absolutely  necessary;  the  same  is  true 
of  a  history  of  colic.  The  fact  that  the  man's  occupation  is  known 
to  expose  him  to  lead  poisoning  is  always  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  valuable  aids  in  diagnosis. 

In  determining  whether  or  not  there  was  evidence  of  chronic 
plumbism  in  the  148  enamelers  and  millhands  a  stricter  standard 
was  adopted  than  any  of  those  given  above,  and  no  case  was  included 
as  positive  in  which  the  lead  line  was  not  present  on  the  gums  (for 
partial  exceptions  see  cases  described  under  (b)  and  (c)  following), 
because  it  was  impracticable  to  carry  out  blood  and  urine  tests  which 
would  have  helped  out  the  diagnosis  of  cases  with  typical  symptoms 
but  no  lead  line. 

All  of  the  cases  classed  as  positive  presented  the  following  features : 

Presence  of  the  blue-black  line  on  the  gums. 

History  of  ill  health  following  present  occupation. 

Pallor  of  skin  and  mucous  membranes ;  often  extreme  sallowness. 

Marked  loss  of  appetite,  and  distaste  for  breakfast  especially. 

Increasing  loss  of  strength. 

Gastric  disturbances  of  various  kinds. 

(a)  Thirty-five  gave  this  symptom-complex,  and  in  addition  other 
symptoms  were  complained  of  by  these  men,  as  follows:  Obstinate 
constipation,  16  men;  persistent  headaches,  13;  loss  of  weight,  11; 
nausea  and  vomiting,  10 ;  arthralgia,  5 ;  tremors,  2 ;  dizziness,  1. 

(&)  Six  had  an  extreme  condition  of  inflammation  of  the  gums, 
with  caries  and  loss  of  teeth,  and  in  these  cases  the  lead  line  showed 
slightly  or  not  at  all.  These  men  had  worked  a  longer  period  than 
most,  averaging  10^  years  employment,  while  the  general  average 
for  the  1-18  was  less  than  6  years.  They  suffered  from  ill  health  fol- 
lowing entrance  on  this  occupation,  pallor,  loss  of  appetite,  loss  of 
strength,  indigestion,  gastric  pains,  constipation.  Three  of  them 
complained  of  nausea  and  vomiting,  2  of  persistent  headaches,  1  of 
tremors. 

1  Tlieodor  Weyl,  Ilandbuch  der  Arbeiterkrankhciten,  Jena,  190S,  p.  5G1. 


62 


BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU   OP    LABOE. 


(c)  Thirteen  had  had  a  history  of  colic,  severe  enough  to  re- 
quire medical  treatment,  and  confirmation  of  their  statements  was 
obtained  from  the  physicians  who  had  treated  them.  They  vrere  at 
the  time  this  examination  was  made  in  ill  health,  suffering  from 
anemia  and  indigestion.  The  lead  line  was  apparent  in  10,  and  in 
3  the  inflammatory  condition  of  the  mouth  described  above. 

There  seemed  to  be  justification,  therefore,  for  believing  that  these 
54  men  were  suffering  from  chronic  plumbism. 

Thirty-eight  men  were  looked  upon  as  suspicious  cases.  Fifteen 
of  these  had  the  symptoms  described  above  as  characteristic  of  lead 
poisoning,  but  no  lead  line;  urine  and  blood  tests  might  have  proved 
them  to  be  cases  of  plumbism,  but  as  these  tests  could  not  be  made 
they  must  be  regarded  simply  as  suspicious  cases.  The  other  23 
shewed  a  clear  lead  line,  but  either  made  no  complaint  of  ill  health 
or  failed  to  give  a  picture  typical  of  lead  poisoning,  and  they,  too, 
must  be  looked  upon  as  suspicious  cases  only.  Such  men  would  prob- 
ably in  England  or  Germany  be  closely  watched  by  the  examining 
physician,  if  not  temporarily  suspended  from  work. 

Finally,  there  were  56  who  had  no  lead  line  and  only  vague  symp- 
toms. The  average  period  of  employment  for  these  three  classes  was 
about  the  same,  only  slightly  longer  for  the  positive  cases. 

To  sum  up,  among  148  men  examined,  54,  or  36  per  cent,  showed 
evidence  of  chronic  plumbism:  56,  or  38  per  cent,  did  not  show  any 
evidence  of  plumbism;  38,  or  25  per  cent,  were  not  free  from  sus- 
picion, but  could  not  be  regarded  as  clear  cases. 

LENGTH   OF   EXPOSURE   IN   LEAD-POISONING    CASES. 

Among  the  309  cases  of  lead  poisoning  were  186  who  gave  infor- 
mation as  to  the  length  of  time  they  had  been  employed  in  this  trade. 
The  average  was  6  years,  but  38  had  worked  less  than  1  year. 

ONE  HUNDRED  AXD  EIGHTY-SIX  CASES  OP  LEAD  POISONING  IN  THE  GLAZE 
DEPARTMENT  OF  10  PORCELAIN-ENAMELED  IRON  SANITARY- WARE  PLANTS, 
BY  CLASSIFIED  LENGTH  OF  TIME  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  TRADE,  1910  AND  1911. 


Length  of  time  employed. 


Number. 


1  month  and  under  3  months. 
3  months  and  under  6  months 
6  months  and  under  9  months 
9  months  and  under  1  year. . . 

Total  under  1  year 

1  year  and  under  2  years 

2  years  and  under  3  years 

3  years  and  under  4  years 

4  years  and  under  5  years 

5  years  and  under  6  years 

6  years  and  under  7  years 

7  years  and  under  S  years 

8  years  and  under  9  years 

9  years  and  under  10  years 

Total  under  10  years 


Length  of  time  employed. 


10  years  and  under  11  years . 

11  years  and  under  12  years . 

12  years  and  under  13  years . 

13  years  and  under  14  years . 

14  years  and  under  15  years. 

15  years  and  under  16  years. 

16  years  and  under  17  years. 

17  years  and  under  18  years . 

18  years  and  under  19  years . 

19  years  and  under  20  years. 

Total  under  20  years. . 

20  years  and  over 


Total. 


Number. 


1S8 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  63 

But  many  of  these  men  had  kept  on  working  after  they  were  sick, 
going  back  when  they  were  sufficiently  recovered,  and  sometimes 
repeating  this  many  times.  Eighty-two  of  them  gave  a  history -of 
more  than  one  attack  of  lead  poisoning,  of  whom  19  used  such  expres- 
sions as  "  many,"  "  several,"  "  frequent,"  but  63  gave  the  actual 
number  of  attacks.     They  were  as  follows : 


Number 
of  em- 
ployees. 

Number 
of  attacks. 

21 
25 
10 
4 
2 
1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
8 
12 

A  table  giving  the  period  of  exposure  before  the  effects  of  the 
poison  were  first  felt  is  more  illuminating  than  the  length  of  employ- 
ment before  a  particular  attack.  This  could  be  ascertained  in  94 
cases  only.    They  averaged  2.3  years'  exposure. 

NINETY-FOUR  CASES  OF  LEAD  POISONING  IN  THE  GLAZE  DEPARTMENTS  OF 
10  PORCELAIN-ENAMELED  IRON  SANITARY- WARE  PLANTS,  BY  CLASSIFIED 
PERIODS  OF  EXPOSURE. 


Period  of  exposure. 

Cases 
of  lead 
poison- 
ing. 

Period  of  exposure. 

Cases 
of  lead 
poison- 
ing. 

1 
1 
1 
1 
6 
15 
13 
5 
2 

9 

4  years  and  under  5  years 

2 

3 

3 

3  months  and  under  4  months 

7  years  and  under  8  years 

4 
2 

9  years  and  under  10  years 

2 

Total  under  10  years 

10  months  and  under  12  months 

90 

4 

45 
9 
11 

Total 

94 

2  years  and  under  3  years 

As  always,  some  men  are  seen  to  be  much  more  susceptible  to  lead 
as  a  poison  than  others.  The  25  men  who  sickened  in  less  than  6 
months  were  not  necessarily  more  exposed  to  lead  dust  than  those 
who  worked  10  years  before  they  felt  any  symptoms  of  sickness. 
Indeed,  some  of  the  former  were  working  side  by  side  with  the 
latter. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  separate  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
among  enamelers  from  those  among  mixers  nor  to  say  what  is  the 
proportion  of  men  in  each  of  these  two  groups  affected  by  lead  poison- 
ing. In  1  city  there  were  reported  63  cases  in  2  years  among  enam- 
elers in  a  factory  employing  143  enamelers,  and  36  cases  among 
mixers,  the  whole  force  of  mixers  numbering  only  20.     This  was  a 


64  BULLETIN    OP    THE   BUKEAU    OP    LABOE. 

much  larger  number  of  cases  among  mixers  than  was  heard  of  any- 
where else,  but  in  this  city  information  was  obtained  from  a  night 
foreman  who  had  been  employed  for  many  years  in  the  mill  depart- 
ment. Most  of  these  cases  were  not  sufficiently  verified  to  have  con- 
sideration in  this  study. 

SEVERITY    OF    LEAD    POISONING    IN    IRON    SANITARY- WARE    FACTORIES. 

On  this  subject  there  are  no  figures  from  British  sources  to  com- 
pare with  those  of  this  investigation.  This  industry  is  not,  it  seems, 
an  important  source  of  poisoning  in  Great  Britain,  for  only  three 
cases  are  attributed  to  it  during  the  year  1909. 

Serious  cases  of  lead  poisoning  were  found  among  these  sanitary- 
ware  enamelers,  and  yet  not  all  the  serious  cases  were  located. 
Stories  were  told  of  men  who  had  gone  back  to  their  old  homes  in 
Austria-Hungary  broken  in  health,  paralyzed,  or  dying,  and  some- 
times these  tales  came  from  very  trustworthy  sources^  but  dates  and 
details  were  lacking.  Fairly  full  statements,  however,  were  obtained 
from  physicians,  hospitals,  or  personal  interviews  concerning  177  of 
the  309  cases  considered.  Of  these  28  had  palsy,  12  such  cases  being 
reported  by  doctors,  16  by  employers  and  men;  8  had  the  cerebral 
form  of  lead  poisoning,  7  of  whom  were  reported  by  doctors  and  1 
by  a  fellow  workman. 

Accepting  only  the  professional  information  the  following  classi- 
fication of  160  cases  is  obtained: 

NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT  IN  EACH  CLASSIFICATION  OF  160  PROFESSIONALLY 
DETERMINED  CASES  OF  LEAD  POISONING  IN  10  TORCELAIN-ENAMELED  IRON 
SANITARY-WARE  PLANTS. 


Classification. 

Cases. 

Per  cent. 

19 

77 
64 

11.9 

48.1 

Slight 

40.0 

Total 

160 

100.0 

The  percentage  of  severe  and  moderate  cases  is  greater  here  than 
among  the  male  potters. 

Twelve  cases  were  said  to  have  ended  fatally  during  these  2  years, 
5  of  whom  were  reported  by  the  men,  7  by  doctors  and  hospitals. 
These  7  would  represent  a  mortality  of  3-^-  a  year  among  1,012 
employed,  more  than  three  times  as  great  a  mortality  as  that  among 
the  potters. 

EFFECT  OF  LEAD  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  NATURE  OF  THE  WORK. 

In  considering  the  question  of  lead  poisoning  among  iron  sanitary- 
ware  enamelers  one  must  not  overlook  the  influence  of  the  excessive 
heat,  of  the  bodily  fatigue,  and  the  irritating  dust,  all  of  which  are 


LEAD   POISONING  IN    POTTERIES,    TILE    WORKS,    ETC.  65 

evils  inherent  in  the  work.  The  development  of  lead  poisoning  is, 
according  to  all  authorities,  favored  by  fatigue,  heat,  and  irritating 
dust.  Another  feature  of  the  work  is  the  connection  between  lead 
poisoning  and  tuberculosis.  The  enamel  dust  is  ground  glass,  ex- 
tremely injurious  to  the  lungs,  and  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  a  great 
deal  of  tuberculosis  among  the  men  who  handle  it.  A  physician  prac- 
ticing near  one  of  these  factories  had  20  patients  die  of  tuberculosis 
during  7  years'  time,  all  of  them  mixers  or  enamelers.  It  is  well 
known  that  lead  poisoning  favors  the  development  of  tuberculosis. 

IS  DANGER  OF  LEAD  POISONING  INCREASING  IN  INDUSTRIES  STUDIED? 

In  the  section  on  lead  poisoning  in  the  white-ware  potteries  it  Was 
possible  to  say  that  according  to  information  received  from  plrysicians 
and  workmen  it  seems  to  have  decreased  markedly.  As  to  the  other 
branches  of  the  pottery  industry,  tile  making  and  art  and  utility 
ware,  the  testimony  is  not  unanimous,  but  it  is  probable  that  here, 
too,  there  has  been  improvement.  In  the  enameling  of  iron  sanitary 
ware  there  is  apparently  in  some  factories  less  lead  poisoning  than 
formerly.  One  plant,  for  instance,  is  using  less  lead  all  the  time  and 
the  manager  is  endeavoring  to  get  away  from  its  use  altogether.  In 
this  town  both  the  physicians  and  the  emploj^ees  of  the  factory  assert 
that  there  is  not  nearly  so  much  sickness  among  the  men  as  there  used 
to  be.  In  two  other  towns  conditions  are  said  to  have  grown  worse 
instead  of  better,  and  lead  poisoning  to  be  increasing.  This,  of  course, 
is  only  hearsay  evidence.  So  long  as  there  is  no  compulsory  registra- 
tion of  cases  of  industrial  lead  poisoning  and  no  more  accurate  way 
of  discovering  cases  than  those  here  used,  it  can  not  be  known  whether 
matters  are  really  improving  or  growing  worse,  and  so  long  as 
formulas  are  secret  and  there  is  no  legal  control  over  the  amount  of 
lead  in  the  enamel  it  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  one  plant  is 
really  more  dangerous  than  another. 
55S84°— 12 5 


APPENDIX  A. 

HYGIENIC  CONDITIONS  AND  REGULATIONS  IN  POTTERIES,  TILE  WORKS, 
AND  ENAMELED  SANITARY  WARE  WORKS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN,  GER- 
MANY, AND  AUSTRIA. 

INTRODUCTION. 

This  inquiry  was  made  during  the  summer  of  1912  and  covered 
potteries  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Austria  making  earthen- 
ware for  toilet  and  table  use,  sanitary  earthenware,  glazed  tiles,  and 
enameled  ironware  for  sanitary  purposes,  as  these  are  the  branches 
of  industry  investigated  in  the  United  States.  Establishments  were 
selected  which  use  a  lead  glaze  or  a  lead  enamel  and  at  the  same  time 
information  was  sought  as  to  the  attitude  of  the  manufacturers  to- 
ward the  much- discussed  question  of  leadless  glaze  and  fritted  glaze. 
It  was  evident  that  in  these  three  countries  the  use  of  glazes  con- 
taining soluble  lead  is  recognized  as  dangerous  for  the  workmen  and 
in  all  the  establishments  visited  various  measures  were  found  in 
force  which  had  been  introduced  solely  with  a  view  to  prevent  lead 
poisoning  among  the  glaze  workers ;  measures  more  or  less  complete 
and  efficient,  but  always  far  superior  to  those  found  in  potteries  in 
the  United  States.  No  British,  German,  or  Austrian  pottery  was  seen 
in  which  dust  was  tolerated  in  the  dipping  room,  in  which  glaze 
scraping  and  brushing  were  carried  on  without  any  device  for  remov- 
ing the  dust,  or  which  failed  to  provide  a  lunch  room  and  wash  rooms 
for  the  workpeople. 

The  hygiene  of  the  industry  differs  very  much  in  these  three  coun- 
tries, being  best  controlled  in  Great  Britain,  least  in  Austria,  with 
Germany  in  between.  British  potteries  and  tile  works  have  ap- 
parently every  possible  device  for  the  prevention  of  dust  and  for 
insuring  personal  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  workpeople.  Ger- 
man potteries  and  tile  works  are  more  generously  and  beautifully 
built  than  the  British,  the  mechanical  arrangements  for  conveying 
clay  and  ware  are  much  better,  wash  rooms  and  lunch  rooms  are 
always  scrupulously  clean  and  usually  very  attractive,  but  the  system 
of  dust  prevention  is  not  as  well  thought  out  as  in  Great  Britain,  and 
in  consequence  the  dangers  of  ware  cleaning  are  greater  in  German 
factories.  Nor  do  they  make  as  generous  provision  in  the  matter  of 
washing  facilities  and  working  clothes  as  do  the  British.  The  larger 
Austrian  potteries  resemble  the  German  but  are  inferior  in  construc- 
tion and  in  dust  prevention,  while  the  smaller  potteries  in  Austria 
are  said  to  be  bad. 
66 


LEAD   POISONING   IN   POTTEEIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  67 

In  Great  Britain  these  industries  are  governed  by  special  rules 
which  are  modified  according  as  the  factory  uses  a  glaze  or  enamel 
rich  in  lead  or  the  reverse.  The  German  law  of  1887  is  designed 
to  protect  the  consumer,  not  the  workman,  for  it  simply  prohibits 
the  use  of  a  glaze  which  would  yield  soluble  lead  after  one-half  hour's 
boiling  with  4  per  cent  acetic  acid,  this  being  rendered  necessary  by 
the  German  habit  of  using  earthenware  for  cooking  purposes.  Cases 
of  food  poisoning  have  been  traced  to  the  use  of  lead  glazed  ware  in 
cooking.  Efforts  to  introduce  a  law  in  Germany  similar  to  the 
British  law  have  met  with  decided  opposition  from  the  association 
of  German  master  potters  {Verband  Deutscher  Keramiker)  who  in- 
sist that  the  facts  do  not  justify  such  legislation,  that  there  is  very 
little  lead  poisoning  in  this  industry,  and  less  each  year.  As  will 
be  seen  later  on,  it  is  impossible  to  prove  or  disprove  such  a  state- 
ment, because  German  statistics  are  incomplete,  but  whether  or  not 
there  is  need  of  further  legislation  in  Germany,  it  is  certainly  true 
that  many  German  employers  have  of  their  own  initiative  intro- 
duced into  their  potteries  equipment  and  regulations  measuring 
nearly  up  to  those  required  in  Great  Britain.  The  "  Verband  "  also 
declares  itself  in  favor  of  the  use  of  harmless  glazes  and  urges  all 
members  to  carry  on  experiments  in  leadless  glaze  and  in  properly 
fritted  glaze. 

One  advantage  of  the  British  system  of  regulation  is  that  it  offers 
every  inducement  to  the  manufacturer  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
soluble  lead  in  his  glaze  and  thus  escape  the  irksome  rules  govern- 
ing potteries  in  which  the  glaze  has  over  5  per  cent  soluble  lead. 
The  German  and  Austrian  manufacturers  have  not  this  incentive. 

In  Austria  there  is  no  law  regulating  the  pottery  industry  as  such, 
nor  the  making  of  enameled  ironware,  but  the  factory  inspectors 
have  the  power  to  insist  upon  the  sanitary  reforms  which  seem 
necessary  in  any  individual  plant. 

The  system  of  medical  care  for  the  workpeople  who  are  exposed 
to  lead  is  mere  thorough  in  Great  Britain  than  in  Germany  and 
Austria.  A  physician  paid  by  the  employer  and  approved  by  the 
Home  Office  examines  once  a  month  all  those  who  are  exposed  in  any 
way  to  the  effects  of  lead  and  reports  all  cases  of  lead  poisoning  to 
the  Home  Office.  In  Germany  and  Austria  people  suffering  from 
lead  poisoning,  like  all  other  sick  working  people,  go  to  the  doctors 
attached  to  the  sickness-insurance  office,  and  these  doctors  are  not 
obliged  to  report  cases  of  lead  poisoning  in  Prussia  or  in  Austria,  but 
in  Saxony  the  law  requires  them  to  do  so.  Obviously,  even  in  Sax- 
ony, it  is  possible  for  cases  to  escape  detection  which  would  be 
brought  to  light  under  the  routine  examination  practiced  in  British 
potteries, 


68  BULLETIN"    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF   LABOE. 

The  question  of  the  composition  of  glazes  and  enamels  was  dis- 
cussed with  British,  German,  and  Austrian  experts.  It  is  evident 
that  there  is  an  effort  among  the  pottery  manufacturers  in  all  these 
countries  to  get  away  from  the  use  of  lead  altogether  whenever  this 
is  found  to  be  possible  and,  when  it  is  not,  to  frit  the  lead  in  such 
a  way  as  to  render  it  insoluble.  In  a  large  tile  works  in  Velten 
(Prussia)  a  glaze  was  found  in  use  which  after  careful  fritting 
contains  only  0.01  per  cent  of  soluble  lead.  The  original  formula 
was  given  as  follows:1 

te  Earts. 

Silica 156.  0 

Feldspar 55.9 

Potassium  nitrate 10. 1 

Sodium  carbonate    (anhydrous) 21.2 

Tin  oxide 60.  0 

Lead  oxide 133.  8 

Kaolin 25.  S 

In  a.  Meissen  tile  works  and  pottery  18  per  cent  of  red  lead  enters 
into  the  mixture,  but  fritting  reduces  the  amount  of  soluble  lead  to 
3  to  4  per  cent.  The  owner  of  an  Austrian  earthenware  pottery  which 
was  visited  claims  to  have  a  fritted  glaze  which  is  entirely  harmless, 
though  the  Thorpe  solubility  test  has  not  been  applied  to  it.  The  for- 
mula is  as  follows: 

Sand 392 

Boric   acid 39 

Soda IT 

Oxide  of  lead 260 

Lime 188 

This  is  fritted  at  a  high  temperature  and  is  said  to  contain  only 
traces  of  soluble  lead. 

Dr.  L.  Teleky  gives  the  results  of  several  analyses  of  glaze  made  for 
him  by  the  royal  food  commission  in  Vienna  (Lebensmittelunter- 
suchungsanstalt) .  A  fritted  glaze  from  Villeroy  and  Boch  in  Dres- 
den gave  only  0.9  per  cent  soluble  lead,  and  one  from  a  firm  in  Fur- 
stenwald,  which  frits  at  a  high  temperature,  contained  no  soluble  lead. 
On  the  other  hand  a  poorly  fritted  glaze  from  a  pottery  in  Meissen 
had  almost  as  much  soluble  lead  2  as  a  nonfritted  glaze  from  the  same 
pottery,  56.17  per  cent  for  the  former,  61.3  per  cent  for  the  latter. 
One  of  the  tile  factories  in  Meissen  that  was  visited  was  using  a 
glaze  for  colored  tiles  which  contained  30  per  cent  soluble  lead.  It 
is  in  the  use  of  these  glazes,  rich  in  lead,  that  the  superiority  of 
British  methods  is  seen,  for,  as  far  as  the  avoidance  of  glaze  dust  is 

1  Keramischer  Rundschau,  Vol.  20,  p.  79. 

-  The  term  soluble  lead  always  means  the  amount  of  lead  soluble  in  0.25  per  cent  hydro- 
chloric acid,  according  to  the  Thorpe  test.  See  Rule  No.  2,  special  rules  for  the  manufac- 
ture and  decoration  of  earthenware  and  china  in  Great  Britain,  Appendix  B  of  this 
report,  p.  83. 


lead  poisoning  in  potteries,  tile  works,  etc.  69 

concerned,  the  British  tile  works  are  much  better  managed  than  the 
German. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  while  the  legal  regulation  of  this 
industry  is  not  as  strict  in  Germany  and  Austria  as  in  Great  Britain, 
yet  the  employers  in  these  countries  are  alive  to  the  danger  of  the 
use  of  lead  glazes  and  are  trying  to  lessen  it  by  improving  the  com- 
position of  the  glaze  and  by  protecting  the  workmen.  The  following 
is  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  way  in  which  glaze  is  handled  in 
British,  German,  and  Austrian  potteries  and  the  care  that  is  given 
to  the  working  people: 

BRITISH    POTTERIES    AND   TILE    WORKS. 

Three  potteries  making  table  and  toilet  ware  were  visited  in  Staf- 
fordshire, namely,  the  Doulton  Co.,  in  Burslem;  the  Grindley  Hotel 
Ware  Co.,  in  Burslem ;  and  the  Star  China  Co.,  in  Langton.  The 
factories  are  not  as  large  and  roomy  as  are  the  best  in  the  United 
States,  but  are  also  not  as  dark  and  crowded  as  are  the  worst.  In 
hygienic  construction  they  are  immeasurably  superior  to  the  best  in 
New  Jersey  and  Ohio.  The  dipping  rooms  are  constructed  so  as  to 
allow  of  perfect  cleaning  and  they  are  kept  clean.  The  floors  of 
these  rooms  are  of  cement  or  dust  brick  which  shows  plainly  the  white 
drops  of  glaze  and  makes  it  easy  to  control  a  careless  dipper.  Splash- 
ing is  never  allowed,  for  it  is  wasteful  as  well  as  dangerous.  The 
floors  are  never  swept  dry  but  are  washed  with  mops  or  flushed  from 
a  hose  every  evening.  The  walls  also  are  of  smooth,  impermeable, 
painted  plaster  or  of  tiles,  so  that  they  can  be  washed  free  from  dust. 

In  the  three  potteries  visited  the  dipping  rooms  were  very  attrac- 
tive, that  at  Grindley's  being  especially  so;  a  one-storied  building, 
well  lighted  and  ventilated  from  the  roof,  with  a  dark  red  tile  floor 
contrasting  pleasantly  with  the  white-glazed  tiles  which  covered  the 
walls.     Such  a  room  can  be  washed  from  ceiling  to  floor. 

There  are  various  devices  for  preventing  the  dipper  from  splashing 
glaze  on  walls  and  floor,  but  all  are  essentially  screens  of  wood  or 
zinc,  guarding  all  the  circumference  of  the  tub  except  the  place  where 
the  dipper  stands  working,  or  there  may  be  a  cover  over  all  but  a 
third  of  the  tub  and  the  dipper  then  works  under  this  cover. 

One  does  not  usually  find  a  "  taker-off  "  working  beside  the  dipper's 
drip  board  as  in  our  potteries,  although  this  is  sometimes  seen.  In 
such  cases  the  clipper  places  the  ware  on  a  board  which  stands  so  as 
to  drip  back  into  the  tub  and  the  taker-off  lifts  it  off.  Never  is  the 
glaze  allowed  to  fall  anywhere  but  back  into  the  tub,  a  matter  of 
economy  as  well  as  precaution  against  dust. 

In  these  three  potteries  the  dippers  placed  their  ware  at  once  on  a 
so-called  "  mangle,"  which  consists  of  a  series  of  grated  shelves  travel- 
ing along  an  endless  belt  within  a  heated  compartment.  At  the 
other  end  stood  a  girl  taker-off  and  removed  the  now  dried  ware. 


70  BULLETIN"    OF    THE   BUBEAU    OF    LABOE. 

Glost  kilnmen  do  no  ware  cleaning;  they  only  place  the  ware  in 
the  saggers.  Ware  cleaning  or  finishing  is  done  dry,  with  knives 
called  "  fettles,"  or  sharp  sticks,  or  stiff  brushes,  or  it  is  done  wet 
with  sponges  or  wet  flannel,  but  always  with  every  possible  precau- 
tion against  dust.  When  dry  rubbing  or  scraping  must  be  used,  the 
man  or  woman,  more  often  the  latter,  works  over  a  large  vessel  or 
shallow  sink  of  water,  which  catches  all  the  heavier  particles  of  glaze, 
and  in  front  of  or  over  an  air  exhaust,  which  carries  off  the  lighter 
particles.  There  are  various  devices  used.  In  one  pottery  a  man 
was  rubbing  the  bottoms  of  small  saucers  across  rough  flannel  fas- 
tened to  a  long  board.  In  front  of  the  board,  between  it  and  the 
man,  was  a  shallow  trough  of  water,  and  behind  the  board  ran  the 
long  opening  of  an  air  exhaust  drawing  away  the  dust  raised  by  the 
rubbing.  In  another,  the  girl  taker- off  at  the  mangle  had  before  her 
a  long  shallow  tank  in  which  stood  two  boards  covered  with  flannel, 
net  under  the  water  but  saturated  by  it.  From  the  center  of  the 
tank  projected  the  opening  of  an  air  exhaust  covered  with  netting. 
The  girl  took  two  cups  off  the  mangle,  rubbed  the  foot  of  one  against 
the  other,  holding  them  over  this  exhaust,  then  gave  each  a  quick  rub 
over  the  wet  flannel. 

Other  ware  needs  more  thorough  cleaning,  with  fettle  and  brush. 
Here  women  were  found  scraping  and  brushing  off  the  glaze  into 
shallow  sinks  filled  with  water,  along  the  farther  side  of  which  ran 
an  opening  about  6  inches  high,  with  a  strong  exhaust  leading  into 
the  dust-collecting  system.  The  glaze  deposited  from  these  exhaust 
pipes  is  used  to  finish  the  inside  of  saggers ;  the  glaze  caught  in  the 
water  can  be  used  for  ware  again.  It  is  claimed  that  it  is  an  economy 
to  collect  excess  glaze  in  water  instead  of  letting  it  fall  on  the  floor 
to  be  swept  up  with  dust  and  dirt. 

The  boards  en  which  the  glazed  ware  is  placed  and  the  shelves  on 
Avhich  it  is  stored  before  firing  are  beautifully  clean.  These  beards 
must  be  washed  every  evening. 

Decorating  rooms  are  not  superior  to  those  in  the  United  States. 
The  proposed  new  rules  which  are  still  under  consideration  will 
require  the  floors  in  these  rooms  to  be  of  some  impervious  material, 
but  at  present  they  are  made  of  wood,  and  color  is  blown  and  dusted 
on  ware  at  wooden  tables.  The  hoods  used  over  the  eoler  blowing 
to  carry  off  the  dust  are  like  those  in  our  potteries,  except  that  it  is 
more  usual  in  England  to  have  the  sides  and  top  made  of  glass,  a 
good  thing,  for  it  allows  one  to  see  whether  the  color  dust  is  really 
carried  off  by  the  exhaust.  In  one  pottery  the  sides  of  the  hoed 
sloped  together  toward  the  front,  thus  narrowing  the  opening. 

Majolica  painting  and  glazing  was  seen  in  the  Royal  Art  Pottery 
in  Langton.  Here  all  the  arrangements  for  preventing  splashing 
and  for  removing  glaze  dust  which  have  been  described  above  were 


LEAD   POISONING  IE"   POTTEEIES,    TILE   WOEKS,    ETC.  71 

found,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  details.  The  processes  used 
are  similar  to  those  used  in  Zanesville  art  potteries,  but  the  contrast 
between  this  place  and  the  ones  visited  in  Zanesville  is  very  great. 
The  English  majolica  pottery  owner  has  succeeded  in  rendering  the 
work  almost  clustless ;  certainly  no  possible  precaution  seems  to  have 
been  neglected.  The  two  tile  factories  visited  were  Minton  &  Hol- 
lins,  in  Stoke-upon-Trent,  and  Malkin's,  in  Burslem.  In  these  two 
factories  the  abolition  of  glaze  dust  strikes  an  American  observer  as 
even  more  remarkable  than  in  the  potteries,  perhaps  because  Ameri- 
can tile  works  are  greater  offenders  in  the  matter  of  dust  than  are 
the  potteries.  At  Minton  &  Hollins  colored  tiles  are  dipped  by  hand 
so  skillfully  as  to  need  no  subsequent  cleaning.  Colored  cornices  and 
other  irregular  shapes  are  painted  with  a  brush,  and  as  soon  as  each 
is  finished  it  is  taken  by  a  cleaner  and  scraped  before  the  glaze  has 
had  time  to  dry.  The  damp  glaze  drops  into  a  pan  of  water  and  is 
used  again.  Great  care  is  taken  not  to  waste  it  by  letting  it  fall  on 
the  table  or  floor.  In  both  these  factories  it  is  the  rule  to  fettle  all 
tiles  that  need  cleaning  at  once,  before  they  are  dry,  and  never  let 
them  accumulate.  Usually  a  dipper  has  three  or  four  helpers,  one 
to  pass  the  dipped  tiles  to  the  others  for  cleaning.  Majolica  tiles  are 
finished  at  once  by  the  decorator  himself. 

The  dipping  rooms  in  these  factories  are  excellently  constructed, 
especially  the  ones  in  Malkin's,  which  are  very  light  and  well  aired, 
with  white  tiled  walls  and  a  red  tiled  floor  sloping  to  a  drain,  so  that 
it  can  be  flushed  with  a*  hose. 

The  glaze  for  colored  tiles  contains,  of  course,  much  more  lead 
than  that  for  white  tiles,  and  the  glazing  of  the  two  kinds  is  carried 
on  in  separate  rooms.  Colored  tiles  are  placed  in  saggers  by  the 
dippers ;  white  tiles  are  placed  by  special  workers  in  a  separate  room, 
but  these  people  come  under  the  same  rules  as  other  glaze  workers. 

The  greatest  contrast  between  British  and  American  potteries  and 
tile  works  is  seen  in  the  attention  paid  to  the  personal  care  of  the 
workpeople.  All  the  factories  visited  come  under  the  special  rules 
which  apply  to  places  using  a  glaze  containing  more  than  5  per  cent 
soluble  lead.  These  rules  apply  to  every  person  who  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  glaze  in  any  way,  even  if  he  is  only  working  in  the  same 
room  with  dippers  or  cleaners.  This,  of  course,  leads  to  a  strict  sepa- 
ration of  safe  from  dangerous  processes,  such  as  does  not  obtain  in 
many  American  potteries  and  tile  works. 

The  glaze  workers  are  furnished  with  full  suits  of  washable  work- 
ing clothes,  washed  weekly  and  mended  at  the  expense  of  the  em- 
ployer. Men  wear  overalls  and  caps,  women  full,  high-necked,  and 
long-sleeved  aprons  of  some  light-colored  calico.  There  was  at  first 
a  good  deal  of  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  girls  to  wearing  caps, 
but  a  clever  factory  inspector  devised  a  pretty  shirred  sunbonnet 


72  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOR. 

which  sits  loosely  on  the  head  and  is  very  becoming.  One  sees  light 
blue,  pink,  and  lavender,  the  girls  choosing  the  color  they  like.  The 
"bonnets  are  very  inexpensive. 

Toilet  rooms  must  contain  one  basin  with  hot  and  cold  running 
"water  for  every  five  emplo3^ees,  and  roller  towels,  soap,  and  nail- 
brushes. The  workpeople  are  required  to  take  off  their  work  clothes, 
and  wash  hands  and  face,  before  leaving  work  or  going  into  the  lunch 
room,  the  only  place  where  they  are  permitted  to  keep  and  eat  food. 
It  is  customary  to  allow  one-quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  middle  of  the 
morning  and  afternoon  and  one  hour  at  noon.  The  lunch  rooms  in 
British  potteries  are  for  the  most  part  unattractive  and  untidy  and 
can  not  bear  comparison  with  those  in  German  potteries,  but  the 
difference  lies  in  the  workpeople  rather  than  in  the  employers. 

The  men  and  women  employed  in  the  Staffordshire  potteries  look 
for  the  most  part  in  excellent  health,  the  girls  with  beautiful,  bloom- 
ing complexions,  but  it  would  hardly  be  fair  to  compare  them  with 
the. workers  in  our  potteries,  for  Americans  in  every  walk  of  life  are 
paler  and  less  robust  looking  than  the  English. 

In  discussing  the  question  of  State  regulation  of  the  pottery  in- 
dustry, very  strong  opposition  was  usually  expressed  in  Staffordshire 
to  any  suggestion  of  the  prohibition  of  lead  glaze,  but  no  criticism 
was  made  of  the  rules  protecting  the  workpeople  against  lead  pois- 
oning. As  can  be  seen,  these  rules  involve  expense  and  continual 
vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  employer,  yet  not  only  are  they  accepted, 
but  in  some  instances  emplo37ers  have -gone  beyond  the  requirements 
of  the  law.  Thus  in  the  Malkin  Tile  Works  a  physician  is  employed 
to  attend  to  all  the  ailments  of  the  women  employees,  in  addition  to 
the  physician  who  once  a  month  examines  them  for  symptoms  of 
plumbism.  This  factory  furnishes  hot  milk  free  each  morning  to 
all  the  people  who  come  under  the  special  rules.  There  is  a  charm- 
ingly fitted-up  lunch  room  with  walls  of  decorated  tiles,  and  the  em- 
ployers provide  a  stove  and  fuel  and  the  services  of  a  housekeeper, 
who  cooks  the  food  which  the  workpeople  club  together  to  buy.  In 
this  way  they  can  have  a  hot  meat  dinner  for  the  sum  of  3^d. 
(7  cents). 

GERMAN  POTTERIES  AITS   TILE  WORKS. 

The  German  pottery  industry  is  different  in  many  ways  from  the 
British  and  therefore  from  our  own,  which  is,  of  course,  of  British 
origin.  Moreover,  the  methods  used  in  parts  of  Germany  are  differ- 
ent from  those  in  potteries  in  other  regions  making  similar  ware. 
Stove  tiles  in  Prussia  are  glazed  in  one  way,  in  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and 
Silesia  in  quite  another  way.  Boof  tiles  are  mostly  unglazed ;  others 
are  covered,  as  in  America,  with  a  leadless  glaze ;  but,  in  some  places, 
the  Diisseldorf  region  for  instance,  a  glaze  with  a  large  amount  of 
lead  is  used. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,   TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  13 

In  the  Berlin  district  stove  tiles  are  covered  with  an  opaque  glaze 
containing  oxides  of  tin  and  of  lead,  which  are  very  thoroughly 
fritted.  These  are  known  as  "  Schmelzkacheln."  In  Saxony,  Ba- 
varia, Silesia,  and  in  Austria  a  transparent  glaze  is  used,  soft,  rich 
in  lead,  which  has  been  only  partially  fritted,  if  at  all.  For  white 
tiles  the  glaze  may  have  from  10  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  lead  oxide ; 
for  colored,  from  40  per  cent  to  80  per  cent.  These  tiles  are 
"  Begusskacheln." 

One  great  drawback  of  the  pottery  industry  in  Prussia  and  in 
Austria  is  that  instead  of  using  already  prepared  lead  oxides  for 
the  glaze,  metallic  lead,  with  tin  usually,  is  oxidized  in  furnaces  in 
the  pottery,  and  there  is  thus  added  a  new  element  of  danger  for 
the  workmen.  Indeed,  in  the  Velten  district  in  Prussia,  where  a 
red-clay  body  is  used  and  must  be  covered  with  an  opaque  glaze, 
this  oxidizing  of  tin  and  lead  is  general  and  is  said  to  be  responsible 
for  almost  all  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning  in  these  potteries. 

Earthenware  for  sanitary  use  is  covered  with  a  leadless  glaze, 
table  and  toilet  ware  with  a  lead  glaze,  usually  only  partly  fritted, 
for  most  of  the  lead  oxide — rarely  white  lead — is  added  after  the 
fritting  process.  According  to  Dr.  Kaup,  in  the  potteries  of  the 
upper  Palatinate  all  the  lead  is  fritted  with  sand  sufficient  to  com- 
bine with  it  and  produce  the  higher  silicates  of  lead,  and  in  conse- 
quence lead  poisoning  has  vanished  from  this  part  of  the  country. 

The  potteries  visited  in  Germany  were  the  Veltener  Ofenfabrik, 
of  Blumenf eld,  near  Berlin,  where  white  and  colored  tiles  are  made ; 
the  Meissner  Ofen-  und  Porzellan-  Fabrik,  C.  Teichert,  in  Meissen, 
making  tiles  and  porcelain;  and  the  Dresden  branch  of  Villeroy  & 
Boch  making  sanitary  ware,  table  and  toilet  ware,  and  tiles.  These 
are  all  large,  modern,  beautifully  constructed  factories,  with  brick 
or  tiled  floors,  tiled  walls,  ample  light  and  air,  and  so  high  a  stand- 
ard of  cleanliness  that  in  many  rooms  one  could  quite  literally  eat 
off  the  floor. 

The  Veltener  factory  is  an  example  of  Prussian  tile  works,  where 
the  glaze  used  is  practically  harmless.  The  formula  for  this  glaze 
has  already  been  given. 

After  thorough  fritting  the  lead  is  converted  to  the  higher  silicate, 
and  the  report  from  the  Government  laboratories  gave  the  amount 
of  soluble  lead  as  only  0.01  per  cent. 

In  this  pottery  there  are  only  three  places  where  there  is  any 
danger  of  lead  poisoning.  The  chief  one  is  in  the  preparation  of 
the  lead  oxide.  Metallic  lead  and  tin  are  melted  together  and  oxi- 
dized in  furnaces.  The  usual  precautions  against  the  escape  of 
fumes  are  employed  here,  but  it  is  said  that  all  the  cases  of  lead 
poisoning  in  the  factory  came  from  the  furnace  gang.  The  second 
place  is  in  the  mixing  room,  where,  however,  such  scrupulous  cleanli- 


74  BULLETIN    OF    THE   EUEEAU    OF    LABOE. 

ness  is  observed  that  one  dees  not  see  how  a  case  of  dust  poisoning 
could  occur. 

The  handling  of  the  glaze,  especially  in  ware  cleaning,  is  not 
nearly  as  careful  as  in  England,  but  as  the  glaze  is  practically  free 
from  soluble  lead  there  would  be  no  need  of  such  precautions.  Safe 
as  it  is,  it  is  used  with  decidedly  more  care  than  are  our  soluble  lead 
glazes  in  America. 

The  third  place  where  there  is  danger  of  lead  poisoning  is  in  the 
making  of  onyx  tiles.  Lead  colors  are  used  and  are  applied  by 
means  of  sponges  or  atomizers.  No  women  are  employed  in  any  of 
these  departments  in  this  factory.  Thirty  men  in  all  come  in  con- 
tact with  lead  in  making  and  handling  the  glaze.  Working  clothes 
are  not  provided  here,  nor  are  the  washing  accommodations  at  all 
abundant,  and  there  is  no  medical  examination  of  the  employees. 
The  officials  state  that  they  average  a  little  less  than  two  cases  of 
lead  poisoning  a  year,  and  that  these  men  always  come  from  the 
furnace  rooms. 

As  was  stated  above,  the  Dresden  tile  industry  differs  from  the 
Berlin  in  that  a  nonfritted  or  partially  fritted  glaze  is  used,  con- 
taining often  a  large  quantity  of  soluble  lead.  C.  Teichert,  in 
Meissen,  uses  for  wall  tiles  a  glaze  containing  90  to  95  per  cent  of 
frit  in  which  10  to  20  per  cent  of  red  lead  has  been  fused  with  large 
quantities  of  silica  and  supposedly  rendered  insoluble,  but  this  point 
has  not  been  verified  by  test.  The  experiment  in  fritting  was  made 
in  order  to  lessen  the  dangers  of  lead  poisoning,  and  the  fritted  glaze 
has  been  found  to  be  entirely  free  from  any  disadvantages.  For 
stove  tiles  the  problem  is  quite  different,  and  so  far  it  has  been  im- 
practicable to  use  for  these  a  fritted  glaze.  It  was  explained  that  the 
body  of  the  stove  tiles  is  made  of  clay  which  will  not  take  a  glaze 
very  rich  in  silicic  acid,  for  it  would  be  too  inelastic  and  would 
craze.  As  much  as  60  or  65  per  cent  of  red  lead  is  used  for  these 
tiles,  and  the  Thorpe  test  is  said  to  show  the  presence  of  10  to  30  per 
cent  soluble  lead. 

Mixing  is  carried  on  in  a  room  which  has  a  smooth  brick  floor 
and  is  kept  scrupulously  clean,  but  there  are  no  dust  removing  ex- 
hausts, and  an  open  tub  is  used  for  the  mixing  of  ingredients. 

White  tiles  for  walls  are  glazed  by  means  of  machines  like  those 
used  in  the  United  States  and,  as  in  our  factories,  need  no  scraping 
or  brushing.  There  are  also  machines  for  colored  tiles.  These 
tiles  are  placed  right  side  up  on  a  traveling  belt  which  carries  them 
through  a  closed  chamber  under  a  spray  of  colored  glaze.  Irregular 
shapes  are  glazed  in  the  same  way.  Large  tiles,  such  as  are  used  for 
stoves,  are  glazed  by  pouring  and  these  need  scraping  and  brushing. 
Women  and  girls  scrape  them/with  knives  and  rub  them  with  heavy 
felt,  letting  the  glaze  fall  into  pans  on  the  table.     There  is  no  water 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  75 

to  catch  the  heavy  glaze  and  no  exhaust  to  carry  off  the  lighter  part, 
though  there  is  really  net  much  dust,  for  the  glaze  is  still  a  little 
damp.  Still  the  English  way  of  managing  this  part  of  the  work  is 
undeniably  better.  In  this  factory  decorated  tiles  are  mostly  col- 
ored under  the  glaze  with  leadless  colors  applied  by  decalcomania  or 
atomizer. 

Seven  hundred  persons  are  employed  here  and  out  of  this  force 
40  to  50  women  and  24  to  30  men  come  in  contact  with  glaze  as 
dippers  and  cleaners.  In  addition,  there  are  45  placers  and  giost 
kilnmen.  As  in  England,  safe  processes  are  separate  from  danger- 
ous; pressers  and  dippers  do  not  work  in  the  same  room.  There  is 
also  a  noticeable  absence  of  dust  throughout  the  works,  in  great  con- 
trast to  American  tile  factories.  In  the  flint  grinding  room,  for 
instance,  there  is  very  little  dust  to  be  seen,  because  the  mills  are  well 
inclosed  in  wooden  frames  and  are  furnished  with  exhaust  pipes 
which  carry  off  the  dust  and  deposit  it  in  bags,  mechanically  shaken 
and  emptying  into  closed  hoppers.  The  mill  was  open  at  the  time 
the  visit  was  made  and  a  man  was  shoveling  in  flint  but  he  worked 
carefully  and  the  draft  was  strong  enough  to  draw  the  dust  in  from 
the  opening. 

In  the  pressroom  also,  where  the  tiles  are  formed,  there  are  large 
fans  in  the  ceiling  to  carry  off  the  dust.  As  all  authorities  assure 
us  that  irritating  dusts  act  as  predisposing  cause  of  lead  poisoning, 
their  removal  must  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  measures  of  preven- 
tion of  this  disease,  especially  where,  as  is  the  case  in  some  American 
factories,  pressing  and  glazing  go  on  in  the  same  room. 

The  factory  of  Villeroy  &  Boch,  in  Dresden,  manufactures  sanitary 
ware  with  a  leadless  glaze,  table  and  toilet  ware  and  tiles  with  a 
lead  glaze.  It  is  a  beautiful  factory,  very  spacious,  with  high  ceil- 
ings, floors  of  red  and  white  brick,  and  walls  covered  up  to  a  height  of 
8  feet  with  gaily  patterned  tiles.  A  large  dipping  room  accommodates 
60  men  and  women  engaged  in  dipping  and  finishing  table  and  toilet 
ware.  They  dip  by  hand  only  the  largest  and  smallest  pieces;  the 
others  they  grasp  by  means  of  long-handled,  three-pronged  forceps, 
so  that  the  dippers  hand  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  glaze  at 
all.  Each  piece  is  whirled  in  the  air  for  a  few  seconds  to  dry  the 
glaze  and  not  placed  on  the  receiving  board  till  it  is  too  dry  to  drip. 
To  prevent  scattering  of  drops  the  dipping  tubs  are  provided  with 
guards  of  sheet  zinc,  as  in  England. 

The  little  marks  left  in  the  glaze  by  the  ends  of  the  forceps  are 
usually  smoothed  off  at  once  by  the  dipper's  finger,  though  even  this 
is  not  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  ware  handled  "with  tiny 
forceps.  More  extensive  ware  cleaning  is  done  with  thick  felt  or 
knives.  The  women  are  supposed  to  do  it  over  the  opening  of  an  air 
exhaust,  but  really  much  of  it  is  done  right  at  the  receiving  boards. 


76  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOE. 

There,  is  not  nearly  as  much  care  shown  in  this  part  of  the  work  as 
there  is  in  England,  but  the  glaze  used  for  this  ware  is  fritted  and 
contains  only  from  3  to  5  per  cent  of  soluble  lead. 
\h  In  the  tile  division,  also,  there  are  not  as  many  precautions  taken  as 
in  the  English  works  visited.  The  dippers  splashed  glaze  more  and 
the  finishers  had  allowed  tiles  to  accumulate  and  dry  before  scraping 
off  the  excess  of  glaze.  The  work,  however,  was  not  as  dusty  as  that 
seen  in  some  American  factories,  where  the  finishers  brush  and  blow 
away  the  glaze. 

There  are  200  persons  regularly  employed  as  dippers,  cleaners, 
placers,  and  kiinmen,  and  15  more  who  work  twice  a  year  for  periods 
of  four  or  five  weeks  making  up  the  semiannual  supply  of  glaze. 
During  the  last  four  years  no  case  of  lead  poisoning  has  come  to  the 
notice  of  the  sickness-insurance  physicians.  Certainly  this  is  a  record 
to  be  proud  of. 

AUSTRIAN  POTTERIES  AND  TILE  WORKS. 

In  Austria  as  in  the  United  States  there  is  no  law  regulating  the 
hygiene  of  this  industry  as  such  and  there  is  no  compulsory  regis- 
tration of  cases  of  lead  poisoning.  Factory  inspectors  insist  upon 
certain  essentials  in  the  matter  of  cleanliness  and  lunch  rooms  sepa- 
rate from  the  workrooms,  but  one  of  the  factories  which  was  visited 
had  never  been  inspected  and  was  therefore  quite  at  liberty  to  neglect 
all  precautions.  Nevertheless  it  seems,  to  judge  from  the  instances 
seen,  that  the  owners  of  large  potteries  in  Austria  do  not  need  to 
be  compelled  to  provide  at  least  the  essentials  for  the  protection  of 
their  workmen.  For  instance,  in  the  Wieneberger  tile  works  in 
Vienna,  where  550  workpeople  are  employed,  every  effort  is  made  to 
render  the  work  dustless.  The  clay  used  for  tiles  is  slightly 
dampened  before  pressing,  and  the  pressroom  is  singularly  free  from 
dust.  In  the  dipping  rooms  the  tiled  floors  are  washed  daily,  the 
tables  are  washed  daily,  and  the  ware  is  cleaned  over  or  in  front  of 
an  air  exhaust.  The  workpeople  are  provided  with  special  clothing 
and  head  covering ;  there  are  well-equipped  dressing  rooms  and  a  sepa- 
rate lunch  room.  In  the  earthenware  pottery  of  Lichtenstern  Bros., 
in  "Wilhelmsburg,  the  glaze  mixing,  grinding,  and  fritting  is  carried 
on  in  an  open  shed  to  avoid  dust. 

Neither  of  these  potteries  comes  up  to  the  British  standard  of 
safety,  but  both  are  superior  to  American  potteries. 

COMPARISON    OF    CONDITIONS    IN   AMERICAN   AND    FOREIGN    POTTERIES. 

If  we  should  sum  up  the  points  of  superiority  in  these  foreign 
potteries  and  tile  factories  as  compared  with  those  in  the  United 
States,  Ave  should  find  that  the  first  one  is  the  recognition  on  the 
part  of  the  foreign  employer  that  the  handling  of  lead  glaze  is  a 
dangerous  trade,  and  that  the  workman  engaged  in  it  needs  pro- 
tection.    The  means  adopted  to  protect  him,  which  are  not  found  in 


LEAD  POISONING  IN   POTTEKIES,   TILE   WOEKS,   ETC.  77 

American  factories,  are  the  following:  Efforts  to  lessen  the  amount 
of  soluble  lead  in  the  glaze  by  careful  fritting ;  constructing  the  mix- 
ing, grinding,  dipping,  cleaning,  and  placing  rooms  with  hard, 
smooth  floors  easily  kept  clean;  prevention  of  splashing  from  the 
dipping  tubs  by  properly  constructed  screens;  catching  the  heavy 
glaze  scraped  off  by  the  cleaners  in  water  and  carrying  off  the  lighter 
particles  by  means  of  air  exhausts;  providing  and  requiring  the  use 
of  clean,  washable  working  clothes  and  caps,  and  of  properly 
equipped  wash  rooms;  forbidding  the  workmen  to  keep  or  eat  food 
in  any  room  except  the  lunch  room ;  subjecting  all  glaze  workers  and 
decorators  to  a  monthly  medical  examination. 

All  of  these  reforms  could  be  introduced  into  potteries  and  tile 
works  in  the  United  States  without  necessitating  an}^  change  in 
methods  of  manufacture. 

LEAD  POISONING  IN  BRITISH,    GERMAN,   AND    AUSTRIAN   POTTERIES. 

The  British  regulations  in  the  potteries  have  resulted  in  a  great 
reduction  in  the  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  among  potters 
and  decorators.  As  the  annual  reports  of  the  factory  inspection 
department  of  the  Home  Office  give  full  statistics  as  to  the  numbers 
employed,  men  and  women,  in  the  various  occupations  exposing  them 
to  lead,  and  the  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  occurring  each 
year,  it  is  easy  to  trace  the  effect  of  the  sanitary  control  of  this  in- 
dustry in  Great  Britain.  The  regular  monthly  medical  examination 
insures  the  detection  of  early  cases  and  of  mild  chronic  cases,  for 
all  authorities  agree  that  unless  all  the  working  force  comes  under 
the  eye  of  a  physician  at  regular  intervals  some  of  these  cases  will 
escape  discovery.  As  neither  Germany  nor  Austria  has  this  system 
of  medical  control,  it  follows  that  their  information  concerning  lead 
poisoning  in  the  pottery  industry  is  incomplete.  It  would  be  very 
interesting  to  compare  the  results  of  the  different  methods  in  these 
countries  as  shown  by  the  proportion  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
among  the  workmen  in  each,  but  German  and  Austrian  reports  are 
not  full  enough  to  make  this  possible.  A  search  for  usable  and 
comparable  statistics  of  lead  poisoning  in  the  German  and  Austrian 
ceramic  industries  is  bewildering  and  could  be  successful  only  if 
one  had  unlimited  time  to  devote  to  it,  and  after  conference  with 
such  authorities  as  Prof.  Albrecht  and  Dr.  Kaup,  of  the  Central- 
stelle  fiir  Volkswohlfahrt  in  Berlin,  Councilor  Hiibener,  of  Dresden, 
and  Dr.  Teleky,  of  the  University  of  Vienna,  it  was  decided  to  give 
up  the  attempt. 

It  is  not  possible  to  discover  from  the  published  reports  how  many 
ceramic  workmen  in  Germany  and  in  Austria  are  exposed  to  lead 
and  how  many  of  them  contract  lead  poisoning  in  the  course  of  a 
year.  To  ascertain  these  facts  it  would  be  necessary  to  visit  all 
the  factories  and  inquire  as  to  the  number  employed  in  such  work 
in  each  one,  and  then  to  go  through  the  archives  of  the  sickness- 


78  BULLETIN    OF    THE  BUKEAU    OF    LABOR. 

insurance  office  and  pick  out  the  cases.  The  yearly  report  of  the 
factory  inspection  department  of  Saxony  (J ahresbericht  des  honlg- 
lich  Sachsiscken  Geiverbe-Aufsichtsbeam-teii)  for  the  year  1910 
gives  the  number  employed  in  71  potteries  as  6.760  and  in  111  tile 
factories  as  1,146,  but  this  includes  workmen  in  all  the  departments 
•and.  also  includes  potteries  which  use  a  leadless  glaze.  Having  only 
this  to  go  on,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  say  whether  the  22  cases  of 
lead  poisoning-  which  were  reported  as  having  occurred  in  potteries 
and  tile  works  during  this  year  represent  a  small  or  a  fairly  large 
proportion  of  those  engaged  in  handling  the  glaze,  yet  nothing  more 
detailed  than  this  can  be  founcL  It  is  not  possible  to  find  out  from 
the  report  to  which  sex  the  22  cases  belong,  what  sort  of  work  thej^ 
were  doing,  or  what  sort  of  glaze  they  were  handling. 

In  Prussia  even  the  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  occurring  in 
a  year  is  not  known,  because  there  such  cases  are  not  reported.  The 
authorities  who  were  interviewed  said  that  there  could  not  be  much 
lead  poisoning  in  the  potteries  or  the  attention  of  the  sickness  insur- 
ance office  would  have  been  called  to  it  and  an  inquiry  instituted. 
The  use  of  well-fritted  glaze  in  the  Prussian  tile  works  makes  it  prob- 
able that  there  is  less  trouble  there  than  in  Saxony. 

Dr.  Kaup,  of  the  Centraistelle  fur  Volkswohliahrt  in  Berlin,  has 
made  a  study  of  lead  poisoning  in  the  ceramic  industries  in  Germany, 
collecting  all  the  available  information  on  this  subject,  and  he  be- 
lieves that  the  amount  of  industrial  plumbism  among  this  class  of 
people  is  not  indicated  by  the  reports  of  the  sickness  insurance  office 
or  by  the  records  of  hosjutais,  because  many  workpeople  do  not  seek 
hospitals  or  even  visit  physicians  unless  they  feel  themselves  to  be 
seriously  ill.  For  instance,  in  the  Freiburg  region  not  one  case  had 
been  reported,  but  a  factory  inspector  expressed  the  belief  that  10 
per  cent  of  the  women  in  the  potteries  were  suffering  from  lead 
poisoning.  Dr.  Kaup  is  thoroughly  in  favor  of  legislation  requiring 
regular  medical  examination  and  registration  of  all  cases.  He  thinks 
there  is  no  evidence  that  the  cases  are  diminishing.  In  Velten  in 
1901,  1,71s1  persons  were  employed  in  ceramic  work  and  1  cases  of 
lead  poisoning  are  recorded  in  the  sickness  insurance  office.  In  1905 
the  number  of  workers  had  increased  to  2,500,  but  the  cases  to  11. 

Dr.  Ludwig  Teleky,  who  occupies  the  chair  of  social  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Vienna,  estimated  that  there  are  10,522  persons 
employed  in  making  tiles  and  cheap  earthenware  in  Austria-Hungary, 
and  that  5,000  of  these  are  exposed  to  lead,  this  large  proportion 
being  explained  by  the  fact  that  81  per  cent  of  the  establishments 
employ  less  than  5  persons,  and  in  such  small  potteries  all  the 
workmen  must  come  in  contact  with  the  glaze.     Lead  glazes  usually 

1  These  figures  represent  all  employes,  not  glaze  workers  only. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTERIES,    TILE   WORKS,    ETC.  79 

contain  from  40  to  80  per.  cent  of  lead  oxides  and  are  rarely  fritted. 
One  advantage  of  the  small  pottery  is  that  many  of  them  buy  their 
glaze  already  prepared,  thus  escaping  the  dangers  not  only  of  mix- 
ing and  grinding,  but  also  of  burning  the  lead  to  make  the  oxides, 
a  procedure  which  is  common  in  the  larger  Austrian  potteries  as 
it  is  in  the  Prussian.  The  cheapest  ware  does  not  require  cleaning, 
another  advantage,  but  in  general  the  small  potteries  are  dusty, 
crowded,  and  insanitary,  and  when  the  work  is  carried  on  in  the 
potters'  homes  it  endangers  the  health  of  the  family  as  well  as  of  the 
workmen.1  It  is  in  this  part  of  the  industry  that  Dr.  Teleky  sees 
most  need  of  legislative  control.  He  states  that,  in  the  absence  of 
medical  examination  of  the  pottery  workers  and  registration  of  cases 
of  lead  poisoning,  it  is  impossible  to  say  how  much  of  the  latter  is 
present  in  the  potteries  and  tile  works  of  Austria-Hungary.  In 
Vienna,  during  five  years'  time,  36  cases  of  pliimbism  came  under 
the  care  of  the  sickness-insurance  physicians.  These  all  came  from 
12  potteries,  where  the  regular  force  employed  in  glaze  work  was 
not  over  25  persons. 

PORCELAIN-ENAMELED   SANITARY   WARE. 

It  is  not  so  easy  to  compare  the  factories  making  this  ware  in 
the  United  States  with  foreign  factories  as  it  was  in  the  case  of 
potteries  and  tile  works,  because  the  great  majority  of  British  and 
German  factories  use  a  leadless  glaze  for  porcelain  enameled  bath- 
tubs, sinks,  and  basins.  In  Great  Britain  it  was  stated  that  the 
use  of  leadless  enamel  had  been  adopted  in  order  to  escape  the  onerous 
requirements  made  by  the  factory  inspection  department  when  lead 
enamel  is  used,  but  in  Germany  it  is  claimed  that  leadless  enamel  is 
superior  in  durability ;  that  while  lead  enamel  is  at  first  smoother  and 
more  shining,  it  quickly  loses  these  properties  under  the  action  of 
soap  and  hot  water,  becoming  roughened,  dull,  and  hard  to  clean. 
Leadless  enamel  is  less  beautiful  to  start  with  but  lasts  much  better. 
The  factory  at  Thale,  the  Wuppermann  Works  in  Pinneberg.  and 
the  Eschebach  works  in  Radeburg  are  all  said  to  use  leadless  enamel. 
The  same  is  said  to  be  true  of  the  Doulton  works  in  Paisley.  Scot- 
land. In  neither  Great  Britain  nor  Germany  is  this  trade  looked 
upon  as  a  dangerous  one,  and  very  little  is  said  of  it  in  factory 
inspection  reports.  German  experts  were  surprised  to  hear  it  spoken 
of  as  a  lead  trade  at  all. 

In  Austria,  on  the  other  hand,  ironware  is  enameled  with  a  dry 
glaze  rich  in  red  lead,  and  in  this  country  the  industry  is  regarded 
as  decidedly  dangerous.     One  Austrian  stove  works  was  visited  in 

1  For  a  description  of  the  effects  on  the  workers  of  home  manufacture  of  pottery,  see 
article  on  "  Industrial  lead  poisoning  in  Europe,"  by  Sir  Thomas  Oliver,  Bulletin  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  95,  pp.  55  to  5S. 


80  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OP    LABOE. 

"which  gas  stoves  are  enameled  by  a  process  identical  with  that  used 
in  the  United  States  for  sanitary  ware  and  with  no  more  care  than 
is  seen  in  the  latter.  Both  the  enamelers  who  were  interviewed  had 
had  lead  poisoning,  one  of  them  recurring  attacks  of  colic,  the  other 
of  palsy. 

The  most  valuable  suggestions  as  to  what  can  be  done  to  protect 
workmen  against  lead  poisoning  when  they  are  dusting  dry  lead 
enamel  over  a  heated  surface  were  obtained  in  an  English  bathtub 
works ;  and  the  best  system  of  mixing  and  grinding  was  seen  in  the 
Dresden  branch  of  Villeroy  &  Boch,  where  a  fritted  glaze  is  made, 
which  is,  for  all  practical  purposes,  identical  with  the  enamel  used 
in  cur  hollow-ware  factories  and  may  serve  as  a  model  for  the  mill 
department  of  the  latter  as  well  as  a  model  for  potteries. 

In  Villeroy  &  Boch's  pottery  there  is  a  separate  building  de- 
voted to  the  preparation  of  fritted  lead  oxide  glaze,  which  is  made 
up  in  enormous  quantities  twice  a  year.  For  four  or  five  weeks, 
spring  and  fall,  about  15  men  are  employed  here.  Beginning  on- the 
top  floor  of  this  building  we  find  a  storeroom  where  all  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  glaze  except  the  red  lead  are  kept  in  bins  and  sent  down 
through  chutes  to  closed  receptacles  in  the  room  below,  the  mixing 
room.  Here  they  are  weighed  on  large  scales  which  stand  under  a 
hood  with  an  exhaust.  The  red  lead  is  kept  and  weighed  in  a  small 
room  adjoining.  This  room  is  all  tiled  and  the  white  walls  would 
show  plainly  any  deposit  of  red-lead  dust,  but  it  is  flushed  daily,  the 
water  running  off  through  a  drain  in  the  floor.  The  red  lead  falls 
from  a  storeroom  above  into  a  closed  bin,  the  sliding  door  of  which 
opens  under  a  hood  with  an  exhaust.  Here  there  is  a  shelf  holding 
the  scales;  the  lead  is  weighed  into  a  box  and  then  carried  into  the 
mixing  room,  to  be  added  last  of  all  to  the  ingredients  of  the  glaze. 
There  are  hoods  with  air  exhausts  over  the  intakes  and  the  vents  of 
the  mixer,  and  it  is  excellently  inclosed  so  that  no  leaking  can  take 
place.  Mixing  rooms  and  mill  rooms  have  smooth  tiled  floors  and 
are  washed,  not  swept. 

The  charging  of  the  fritting  ovens  is  said  to  be  free  from  dust,  but 
this  detail  could  not  be  observed.  The  fritted  glaze  runs  out  into 
water.    It  is  said  to  contain  from  3  to  5  per  cent  of  soluble  lead. 

In  this  factory,  therefore,  the  lead  oxide  is  handled  as  a  poisonous 
substance  should  be  handled,  and  the  result  of  this  clear  recognition 
of  the  danger  and  careful  precautions  against  it  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  no  case  of  lead  poisoning  has  been  reported  to  the  sickness  insur- 
ance office  for  the  last  four  years.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  a  greater 
contrast  than  that  presented  by  this  glaze  mill  and  the  one  in  a  cer- 
tain sanitary  ware  factory  in  the  United  States  where  every  room 
in  the  building  and  even  the  passages  and  stairways  are  thick  with 
enamel  dust. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN"   POTTEKIES,    TILE    WOPtKS,    ETC.  81 

The  porcelain  enameled  sanitary  ware  made  by  A.  Hutchinscn  & 
Son  (Ltd.),  London,  has  a  lead  enamel,  but  the  firm  is  now  experi- 
menting with  a  leadless  one  of  unknown  formula  made  in  France. 
This  factory  is  interesting,  because  the  methods  employed  are  the 
same  as  those  in  American  factories  making  similar  ware,  and  yet  a 
very  small  proportion  of  enamelers  in  this  factory  suffer  from  lead 
poisoning,  which  shows  that  in  order  to  protect  his  workmen  an 
American  manufacturer  would  not  be  obliged  to  make  radical  changes 
in  his  methods  of  work.  About  20  enamelers,  2  slushers,  and  4  mill 
hands  are  employed  in  this  factory,  using  an  enamel  containing 
soluble  lead,  the  amount  of  which  lead  was  not  stated,  but  the  factory 
comes  under  the  rules  prescribed  for  places  using  as  much  as  5  per 
cent  soluble  lead.  The  average  number  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning 
in  this  factory  employing  26  men  is  one  case  in  two  years'  time, 
as  .shown  by  the  records  of  the  doctor  who  examines  all  the  men  once 
a  month. 

When  one  compares  these  figures  with  those  given  in  the  section  on 
lead  poisoning  among  enamelers  and  mill  hands  in  the  United  States 
one  is  inclined  to  think  that  quite  extraordinary  precautions  must  be 
taken  in  the  English  factory  to  bring  about  such  a  result,  but  in  re- 
ality the  means  used  are  most  simple  and  obvious.  The  enamelers 
wear  not  only  full  suits  of  overalls,  washed  weekly,  but  hats  made 
of  white  duck,  which  are  also  washable.  They  have  pieces  of  muslin 
or  thick  cheesecloth  folded  in  many  layers,  which  they  tie  over  the 
lower  part  of  the  face  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  drawn  up  when 
needed  and  slipped  down  in  the  intervals  of  work.  "When  the  cloth 
is  drawn  up  it  meets  the  brim  of  the  hat  behind  and  leaves  no  part 
of  the  hair  exposed.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  use  of  these 
cloths  can  be  insisted  on,  while  the  men  rebel  against  the  hot,  heavy 
rubber,  and  sponge  respirators. 

The  enamel  rooms  are  small,  and  yet  are  cleaner,  less  dusty,  than 
are  most  of  those  in  the  United  States.  Above  the  furnace,  in  the 
wall,  is  a  fan  with  a  strong  draft,  about  4  feet  above  the  men's 
heads.  This  draft  is,  of  course,  not  strong  enough  to  draw  off  all 
dust,  but  it  helps.  After  each  enameling  the  men  take  long-handled 
brushes  and  brush  down  the  beams  of  the  ceiling,  so  that  no  dust  accu- 
mulates.   No  dry  sweeping  is  ever  allowed. 

The  men  have  a  wash  room  with  hot  water,  one  basin  for  every  5 
men,  shower  baths,  soap  and  towels,  and  toothbrushes.  One  of  the 
most  important  features  is  the  granting  of  two  short  pauses  for 
lunches,  and  one  of  an  hour  for  the  midday  meal.  The  men  leave 
their  workrooms,  take  off  their  overalls,  wash  hands  and  face,  and 
eat  their  lunch  in  a  room  free  from  enamel  dust.  Thus  they  avoid 
two  great  dangers  to  which  enamelers  in  the  United  States  are  ex- 
posed, for  our  enamelers  must  either  eat  food  which  has  been  kept 
55SS4°— 12 6 


52  BULLETIN   OF   THE  BUESAXJ  OF   LABOE. 

in  an  atmosphere  of  lead  dust,  and  which  they  must  take  without 
stopping  to  wash  hands  or  faces,  or  else  they  must  go  fasting  for  the 
six  or  eight  hours  of  their  shift,  and  it  is  hard  to  say  which  of  the 
two  is  more  conducive  to  lead  poisoning. 

When  the  monthly  medical  examination  of  all  the  men  engaged 
in  making  and  handling  the  enamel  is  added  the  list  of  measures 
which  are  used  in  this  factory  for  the  protection  of  the  men  is  com- 
pleted. They  are  not  revolutionary  nor  extravagant,  and  it  would 
seem  entirely  possible  to  introduce  them  into  factories  in  the  United 
States.  If  by  so  doing  the  amount  of  lead  poisoning  could  be  reduced 
from  one  in  three  to  one-half  in  26,  it  is  probable  that  the  reforms 
would  eventually  pay  for  themselves  in  the  increased  efficiency  of  the 
men. 


APPENDIX  B. 

REGULATIONS    FOR    FACTORIES    AND    WORKSHOPS    IN    CERTAIN 
INDUSTRIES   USING  LEAD. 

GREAT  BEJTAIIT. 

PART  II.— SPECIAL  RULES.1 

FOR    THE    MANUFACTURE    AND    DECORATION    OF    EARTHENWARE    AND    CHINA.2 

Amended  special  rules  established,  after  arbitration,  by  the  awards  of  the  umpire,  Lord 
James  of  Hereford,  dated  December  30,  1901,  and  November  28,  1903. 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  Deleted. 

2.  After  the  first  day  of  February,  1904,  no  glaze  shall  be  used  which  yields 
to  a  dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  more  than  5  per  cent  of  its  dry  weight 
of  a  soluble  lead  compound  calculated  as  lead  monoxide  when  determined  in  the 
manner  described  below. 

A  weighed  quantity  of  dried  material  is  to  be  continuously  shaken  for  one 
hour  at  the  common  temperature,  with  1,000  times  its  weight  of  an  aqueous 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  containing  0.25  per  cent  of  HC1,  This  solution 
is  thereafter  to  be  allowed  to  stand  for  one  hour  and  to  be  passed  through  a 
filter.  The  lead  salt  contained  in  an  aliquot  portion  of  the  clear  filtrate  is 
then  to  be  precipitated  as  lead  sulphide  and  weighed  as  lead  sulphate. 

If  any  occupier  shall  give  notice  in  writing  to  the  inspector  for  the  district 
that  he  desires  to  use  a  glaze  which  does  not  conform  to  the  above-mentioned 
conditions,  and  to  adopt  in  his  factory  the  scheme  of  compensation  prescribed 
in  schedule  B,  and  shall  affix  and  keep  the  same  affixed  in  his  factory,  the 
above  provisions  shall  not  apply  to  his  factory  but  instead  thereof  the  follow- 
ing provisions  shall  apply. 

All  persons  employed  in  any  process  included  in  schedule  A  other  than  china 
scouring  shall  be  examined  before  the  commencement  of  their  employment  or 
at  the  first  subsequent  visit  of  the  certifying  surgeon,  and  once  in  each  calen- 
dar month  by  the  certifying  surgeon  of  the  district. 

The  certifying  surgeon  may  at  any  time  order  by  signed  certificate  the 
suspension  of  any  such  person  from  employment  in  any  process  included  in 
schedule  A  other  than  china  scouring,  if  such  certifying  surgeon  is  of  opinion 
that  such  person  by  continuous  work  in  lead  will  incur  special  danger  from  the 
effects  of  plumbism,  and  no  person  after  such  suspension  shall  be  allowed  to 
work  in  any  process  included  in  schedule  A  other  than  china  scouring  without 
a  certificate  of  fitness  from  the  certifying  surgeon  entered  in  the  register. 

Any  workman  who,  by  reason  of  his  employment  being  intermittent  or 
casual,  or  of  his  being  in  regular  employment  for  more  than  one  employer, 
is  unable  to  present  himself  regularly  for  examination  by  the  certifying  sur- 
geon, may  procure  himself  at  his  own  expense  to  be  examined  once  a  month 
by  a  certifying  surgeon,  and  such  examination  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance 

1  Factory  and  Workshop  Acts.  Dangerous  and  Unhealthy  Industries.  Regulations  and 
Special  Rules  in  force  on  Jan.  1,  1908.     London,  1907. 

Note — This  print  contains  the  codes  of  regulations  and  special  rules  (subject  to  the 
exception  mentioned  on  p.  150)  in  force  on  Jan.  1,  1908,  in  places  under  the  factory  acts. 
The  regulations  appear  in  Part  I  of  the  print.  They  have  been  made  under  the  pro- 
cedure enacted  by  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901  (sees.  79-86),  in  substitution 
for  the  "  special  rules "  procedure  of  the  earlier  factory  and  workshop  acts.  Regula- 
tions apply  automatically  to  all  places  of  the  class  for  which  they  are  made.  The 
special  rules  appear  in  Part  II.  Thev  are  made  under  the  procedure  enacted  in  the  Fac- 
torv  and  Workshop  Acts,  1891  and  1895,  and  are  not  in  force  at  a  factory  or  workshop 
until  they  have  been  established  individually  for  that  factory  or  workshop.  The  codes 
of  special  rules  are  being  gradually  replaced  by  regulations  undor  the  act  of  1901. 

2  This  code  superseded  those  of  iS94,  1898,  and  1901,  which,  however,  are  still  in  force 
in  a  few  works.  The  question  of  making  regulations  to  supersede  all  four  codes  is 
under  consideration. 

bo 


8-1  BULLETIN    OF    THE   BUREAU    OF    LABOB. 

with  this  rule.  The  result  of  such  examination  shall  be  entered  by  the  cer- 
tifying surgeon  in  a  book  to  be  kept  in  the  possession  of  the  workman.  He 
shall  produce  and  show  the  said  book  to  a  factory  inspector  or  to  any  employer 
en  demand,  and  he  shall  not  make  any  entry  or  erasure  therein. 

If  the  occupier  of  any  factory  to  which  this  rule  applies  fails  duly  to 
observe  the  conditions  of  the  said  scheme,  or  if  any  such  factory  shall  by 
reason  of  the  occurrence  of  cases  of  lead  poisoning  appear  to  the  secretary 
of  state  to  be  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition,  he  may,  after  an  inquiry,  at 
which  the  occupier  shall  have  an  opportunity  of  being  heard,  prohibit  the 
use  of  lead  for  such  time  and  subject  to  such  conditions  as  he  may  prescribe. 

All  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in  schedule  A  other  than  china 
scouring  sball  present  themselves  at  the  appointed  time  for  examination  by  the 
certifying  su?'geon,  as  prescribed  in  this  rule. 

In  addition  to  the  examinations  at  the  appointed  times,  any  person  so 
employed  may  at  any  time  present  himself  to  the  certifying  surgeon  for  examina- 
tion, and  shall  be  examined  on  paying  the  prescribed  fee. 

All  persons  shall  obey  any  directions  given  by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

No  person  after  suspension  bj  the  certifying  surgeon  shall  work  in  any 
process  included  in  schedule  A  other  than  china  scouring  without  a  certificate 
of  fitness  from  the  certifying  surgeon  entered  in  the  register.  Any  operative 
who  fails  without  reasonable  cause  to  attend  any  monthly  examination  shall 
procure  himself,  at  his  own  expense,  to  be  examined  within  14  days  there- 
after by  the  certifying  surgeon,  and  shall  himself  pay  the  prescribed  fee. 

A  register  in  the  form  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of  state 
for  use  in  earthenware  and  china  works  shall  be  kept,  and  in  it  the  certifying 
surgeon  shall  enter  the  dates  and  results  of  his  visits,  the  number  of  persons 
examined,  and  particulars  of  any  directions  given  by  him.  This  register  shall 
contain  a  list  of  all  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in  schedule  A, 
or  in  emptying  china  biscuit  ware,  and  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when 
required  by  His  Majesty's  inspector  of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

3.  The  occupier  shall  allow  any  of  His  Majesty's  inspectors  of  factories  to 
take  at  any  time  sufficient  samples  for  analysis  of  any  material  in  use  or 
mixed  for  use : 

Provided,  That  the  occupier  may  at  the  time  when  the  sample  is  taken,  and 
on  providing  the  necessary  appliances,  require  the  inspector  to  take,  seal, 
and  deliver  to  him  a  duplicate  sample. 

But  no  analytical  result  shall  be  disclosed  or  published  in  any  way  except 
such  as  shall  be  necessary  to  establish  a  breach  of  these  rules. 

4.  No  woroan,  young  person,  or  child  shall  be  employed  in  the  mixing  of 
unfritted  lead  compounds  in  the  preparation  or  manufacture  of  frits,  glazes, 
or  colors. 

5.  No  person  under  15  years  of  age  shall  be  employed  in  any  process  in- 
cluded in  schedule  A.  or  in  emptying  china  biscuit  ware. 

Thimble-picking,  or  threading-up,  or  looking-over  biscuit  ware  shall  not  be 
carried  on  except  in  a  place  sufficiently  separated  from  any  process  included  in 
schedule  A. 

6.  All  women  and  young  persons  employed  in  any  process  included  in 
schedule  A  shall  be  examined  once  in  each  calendar  month  by  the  c?rtifying 
surgeon  for  the  district. 

The  certifying  surgeon  may  order  by  signed  certificate  in  the  register  the 
suspension  of  any  such  woman  or  young  persons  from  employment  in  any 
process  included  in  schedule  A,  and  no  person  after  such  suspension  shall 
be  allowed  to  work  in  any  process  included  in  schedule  A  without  a  cer- 
tificate of  fitness  from  the  certifying  surgeon  entered  in  the  register. 

7.  A  register,  in  the  form  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of 
state  for  use  in  earthenware  and  china  works,  shall  be  kept,  and  in  it  the  cer- 
tifying surgeon  shall  enter  the  dates  and  results  of  his  visits,  the  number 
of  persons  examined  in  pursuance  of  rule  6  as  amended,  and  particulars 
of  any  directions  given  by  him.  This  register  shall  contain  a  list  of  all  per- 
sons employed  in  the  processes  included  in  schedule  A.  or  in  emptying  china 
biscuit  ware,  and  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when  required  by  His  Majesty's 
inspector  of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

8.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  suitable  overalls  and  head  cover- 
ings for  all  women  and  young  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in 
the  schedule  A.  or  in  emptying  china  biscuit  ware. 

No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  work  in  any  process  included  in  the  schedule, 
or   in    emptying   china    biscuit  ware,    without   wearing   suitable   overalls   and 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTEKIES,    TILE   WOKKS,   ETC.  85 

head  coverings:  Provided,*  That  nothing  in  this  rule  shall  render  it  obligatory 
on  any  person  engaged  in  drawing  glost  ovens  to  wear  overalls  and  head 
coverings. 

All  overalls,  head  coverings,  and  respirators,  when  not  in  use  or  being 
washed  or  repaired,  shall  be  kept  by  the  occupier  in  proper  custody.  They 
shall  be  washed  or  renewed  at  least  once  a  week,  and  suitable  arrangements 
shall  be  made  by  the  occupier  for  carrying  out  these  requirements. 

A  suitable  place,  other  than  that  provided  for  the  keeping  of  overalls,  head 
coverings,  and  respirators,  in  which  all  the  above  workers  can  deposit  clothing 
put  off  during  working  hours,  shall  be  provided  by  the  occupier. 

Each  respirator  shall  bear  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  worker  to  whom  it 
is  supplied. 

9.  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  keep,  or  prepare,  or  partake  of  any  food, 
or  drink,  or  tobacco,  or  to  remain  during  meal  times,  in  a  place  in  which  is 
carried  on  any  process  included  in  schedule  A. 

The  occupier  shall  make  suitable  provision  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction 
of  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district  for  the  accommodation  during  meal 
times  of  persons  employed  in  such  places  or  processes,  with  a  right  of  appeal 
to  the  chief  inspector  of  factories.  Such  accommodation  shall  not  be  provided 
in  any  room  or  rooms  in  which  any  process  included  in  schedule  A  is  carried 
on,. and  no  washing  conveniences  mentioned  hereafter  in  rule  13  shall  be  main- 
tained in  any  room  or  rooms  provided  for  such  accommodation. 

Suitable  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  deposit  of  food  brought  by  the 
workers. 

10.  The  processes  of — 
The  towing  of  earthenware, 
China  scouring, 

Ground  laying, 

Ware  cleaning  after  the  dipper, 

Color  dusting,  whether  on-glaze  or  under-glaze, 

Color  blowing,  whether  on-glaze  or  under-glaze, 

Glaze  blowing,  or 

Transfer  making, 
shall  not  be  carried  on  without  the  use  of  exhaust  fans,   or  other  efficient 
means  for  the  effectual  removal  of  dust,  to  be  approved  in  each  particular  case 
by  the  secretary  of  state,  and  under  such  conditions  as  he  may  from  time  to 
time  prescribe. 

In  the  process  of  ware  cleaning  after  the  dipper,  sufficient  arrangements 
shall  be  made  for  any  glaze  scraped  off  which  is  not  removed  by  the  fan,  or 
the  other  efficient  means,  to  fall  into  water. 

In  the  process  of  ware  cleaning  of  earthenware  after  the  dipper,  damp 
sponges  or  other  damp  material  shall  be  provided  in  addition  to  the  knife  or 
other  instrument,  and  shall  be  used  wherever  practicable. 

Flat-knocking  and  fired-flint-sifting  shall  be  carried  on  only  in  inclosed  re- 
ceptacles, which  shall  be  connected  with  an  efficient  fan  or  other  efficient 
draft  unless  so  contrived  as  to  prevent  effectually  the  escape  of  injurious 
dust. 

In  all  processes  the  occupier  shall,  as  far  as  practicable,  adopt  efficient  meas- 
ures for  the  removal  of  dust  and  for  the  prevention  of  any  injurious  effects 
arising  therefrom. 

11.  No  person  shall  be  employed  in  the  mixing  of  unfritted  lead  compounds, 
in  the  preparation  or  manufacture  of  frits,  glazes,  or  colors  containing  lead 
without  wearing  a  suitable  and  efficient  respirator  provided  and  maintained  by 
the  employer ;  unless  the  mixing  is  performed  in  a  closed  machine  or  the  ma- 
terials are  in  such  a  condition  that  no  dust  is  produced. 

Each  respirator  shall  bear  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  worker  to  whom 
it  is  supplied. 

12.  All  drying  stoves  as  well  as  all  workshops  and  all  parts  of  factories  sum  11 
be  effectually  ventilated  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction  of  the  inspector  in  charge 
of  the  district. 

13.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  continually  maintain  sufficient  and  suit- 
able washing  conveniences  for  all  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included 
in  schedule  A,  as  near  as  practicable  to  the  places  in  which  such  persons  are 
employed. 

The  washing  conveniences  shall  comprise  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and 
at  least  one  wash  (hand)  basin  for  every  five  persons  employed  as  above,  with 
a  constant  supply  of  water  laid  on,  with  one  tap  at  least  for  every  two  basins, 


86  BULLETIN    OF    THE   EXJEEAU    OE   LABOK. 

and  conveniences  for  emptying  the  same  and  running  off  the  waste  water  on 
the  spot  down  a  waste  pipe. 

There  shall  be  in  front  of  each  washing  basin,  or  convenience,  a  space  for 
standing  room  which  shall  not  be  less  in  any  direction  than  21  inches. 

14.  The  occupier  shall  see  that  the  floors  of  workshops  and  of  such  stoves 
as  are  entered  by  the  workpeople  are  sprinkled  and  swept  daily ;  that  all  dust, 
scraps,  ashes,  and  dirt  are  removed  daily,  and  that  the  mangles,  workbenches, 
and  stairs  leading  to  workshops  are  cleansed  weekly. 

When  so  required  by  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district,  by  notice  in  writ- 
ing, any  such  floors,  mangles,  workbenches,  and  stairs  shall  be  cleansed  in  such 
manner  and  at  such  times  as  may  be  directed  in  such  notice. 

As  regards  every  potters'  shop  and  stove,  and  every  place  in  wbich  any 
process  included  in  schedule  A  is  carried  on,  the  occupier  shall  cause  the  suffi 
cient  cleansing  of  floors  to  be  done  at  the  time  when  no  other  work  is  being 
carried  on  in  such  room,  and  in  the  case  of  potters'  shops,  stoves,  dipping 
houses,  and  majolica  painting  rooms,  by  an  adult  male : 

Provided,  That  in  the  case  of  rooms  in  which  ground  laying  or  glost  placing 
is  carried  on,  or  in  the  china  dippers'  drying  room,  the  cleansing  prescribed 
by  this  rule  may  be  done  before  work  commences  for  the  day,  but  in  no  case 
shall  any  work  be  carried  on  in  the  room  within  one  hour  after  any  such 
cleansing  as  aforesaid  has  ceased. 

15.  The  occupier  shall  cause  the  boards  used  in  the  dipping  house,  dippers' 
drying  room,  or  glost-placing  shop  to  be  cleansed  every  week,  and  shall  not  allow 
them  to  be  used  in  any  other  department,  except  after  being  cleansed. 

When  so  required  by  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district,  by  notice  in 
writing,  any  such  boards  shall  be  washed  at  such  times  as  may  be  directed  in 
such  notice. 

Dtities  of  persons  employed. 

18.  All  women  and  young  persons  employed  in  the  processes  included  in  schedule 
A  shall  present  themselves  at  the  appointed  time  for  examination  by  the  certify- 
ing surgeon,  as  provided  in  rule  6  as  amended. 

No  person  after  suspension  by  the  certifying  surgeon  shall  work  in  any  process 
included  in  the  schedule  without  a  certificate  of  fitness  from  the  certifying 
surgeon  entered  in  the  register. 

17.  Every  person  employed  in  any  process  included  in  schedule  A,  or  in 
emptying  china  biscuit  ware,  shall,  when  at  work,  wear  a  suitable  overall  and 
head  covering,  and  also  a  respirator  "when  so  required  by  rule  11  as  amended, 
which  shall  not  be  worn  outside  the  factory  or  workshop,  and  which  shall  not 
be  removed  therefrom  except  for  the  purpose  of  being  washed  or  repaired. 
Such  overall  and  head  covering  shall  be  in  proper  repair  and  duly  washed. 

The  hair  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  fully  protected  from  dust  by  the  head 
covering. 

The  overalls,  head  coverings,  and  respirators,  when  not  being  worn,  and 
clothing  put  off  during  working  hours,  shall  be  deposited  in  the  respective  places 
provided  by  the  occupier  for  such  purposes  under  rule  S  as  amended. 

IS.  No  person  shall  remain  during  meal  times  in  any  place  in  which  is  carried 
on  any  process  included  in  schedule  A,  or  introduce,  keep,  prepare,  or  partake 
of  any  food  or  drink,  or  tobacco  therein  at  any  time. 

19.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  knowledge  and  concur- 
rence of  the  occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  by 
the  employers  for  the  ventilation  of  the  workshops  and  stoves,  and  for  the 
removal  of  dust. 

20.  No  person  included  in  any  process  included  in  schedule  A  shall  leave  the 
works  or  partake  of  meals  without  previously  and  carefully  cleaning  and  wash- 
ing his  or  her  hands. 

No  person  employed  shall  remove  or  damage  the  washing  basins  or  conven- 
iences provided  under  rule  13. 

20a.  The  persons  appointed  by  the  occupiers  shall  cleanse  the  several  parts 
of  the  factory  regularly,  as  prescribed  in  rule  14. 

Every  worker  shall  so  conduct  his  or  her  work  as  to  avoid,  as  far  as  practica- 
ble, making  or  scattering  dust,  dirt,  or  refuse,  or  causing  accumulation  of  such. 

21.  The  boards  used  in  the  dipping  house,  dippers'  drying  room,  or  glost- 
placing  shop  shall  not  be  used  in  any  other  department,  except  after  being 
cleansed,  as  directed  in  rule  15. 

22.  If  the  occupier  of  a  factory  to  which  these  rules  apply  gives  with  refer- 
ence to   any  process  included  in   schedule  A.   other  than   china   scouriug,   an 


LEAD  POISONING  IN   POTTEKIES,   TILE   WOEKS5  ETC.  87 

■undertaking  that  no  lead  or  lead  compound  or  other  poisonous  material  shall 
be  used,  the  chief  inspector  may  approve  in  writing  of  the  suspension  of  the 
operation  of  rules  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  15,  16,  17,  and  21,  or  any  of  them  in  such  process ; 
and  thereupon  such  rules  shall  be  suspended  as  regards  the  process  named  in 
the  chief  inspector's  approval,  and  in  lieu  thereof  the  following  rule  shall  take 
effect,  viz,  no  lead  or  lead  compound  or  other  poisonous  material  shall  be  used 
in  any  process  so  named. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  rule,  materials  that  contain  no  more  than  1  per  cent 
of  lead  shall  be  regarded  as  free  from  lead. 

Supplementary  Special  Rules  fob  the  Manufacture  of  Earthenware  and 
China  in  Force  in  Certain  Works. 

23.  If  the  occupier  of  any  factory  to  which  these  rules  apply  gives  an  under- 
taking in  writing  either  to  the  effect  that — 

(a)  No  glaze  shall  be  used  which  yields  to  a  dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid  more  than  5  per  cent  of  its  dry  weight  of  a  soluble  lead  compound  calcu- 
lated as  lead  monoxide  when  determined  in  the  manner  described  in  rule  2, 
paragraph  2. 
or  to  the  effect  that — 

(5)  No  ware  shall  be  cleaned  after  the  application  of  glaze  by  dipping  or 
other  process  except  in  the  moist  condition ; 

The  chief  inspector  of  factories  may,  if  satisfied  that  the  other  conditions  are 
sufficient  for  the  safety  of  the  persons  employed,  approve  in  writing  of  the 
suspension  in  the  factory  or  part  of  the  factory  of  so  much  of  rule  10  as  requires 
the  provision  of  a  fan  or  other  efficient  means,  to  be  approved  by  the  secretary 
of  state,  for  the  removal  of  dust  in  the  process  of  ware  cleaning ;  and  thereupon 
the  said  part  of  rule  10  shall  be  suspended  accordingly,  and  the  said  under- 
taking shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  special  rule  established  in  the  factory. 

24.  If  the  occupier  of  any  factory  to  which  these  rules  apply  gives  an  under- 
taking in  writing  to  the  effect  that  no  glaze  shall  be  used  which  yields  to  a 
dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  more  than  2  per  cent  of  its  dry  weight 
of  a  soluble  lead  compound  calculated  as  lead  monoxide  when  determined  in  the 
manner  described  in  rule  2,  paragraph  2,  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  may, 
if  satisfied  that  the  other  conditions  are  sufficient  for  the  safety  of  the  persons 
employed,  approve  in  writing  of  the  modification  of  rule  5  in  so  far  as  it  applies 
to  the  processes  of  dipping,  drying  after  dipping,  and  ware  cleaning,  in  the 
factory  or  part  of  the  factory,  by  the  substitution  of  14  years  for  15  years  of 
age,  and  thereupon  rule  5  shall  be  modified  accordingly,  and  the  said  under- 
taking shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  special  rule  established  in  the  factory. 

Any  approval  granted  under  rules  23  and  24  is  liable  to  revocation  in  case 
it  shall  appear  to  the  secretary  of  state  that,  owing  to  the  occurrence  of  lead 
poisoning  in  any  factory,  such  revocation  is  desirable. 

25.  No  ware  shall  be  cleaned  after  the  application  of  glaze  by  dipping  or  other 
process,  except  in  the  moist  state,  or  with  damp  sponge  or  other  similar  damp 
material,  or  with  the  use  of  an  efficient  exhaust  draft. 

So  much  of  rule  10  as  requires  the  provision  of  a  fan  or  other  efficient  means 
for  the  removal  of  dust  in  the  process  of  ware  cleaning  after  the  dipper  shall 
not  apply. 

Schedule  A. 

Dipping  or  other  process  carried  on  in  the  dipping  house. 

Glaze  blowing. 

Pain-ting  in  majolica  or  other  glaze. 

Drying  after  dipping. 

Ware  cleaning  after  the  application  of  glaze  by  dipping  or  other  process. 

China  scouring. 

Glost  placing. 

Ground  laying. 

Color  dusting  " 

Color  blowing 

Lithographic  transfer  making. 

Making  or  mixing  of  frits,  glazes,  or  colors  containing  lead- 
Any  other  process  in  which  materials  containing  lead  are  used  or  handled 
in  the  dry  state,  or  in  the  form  of  spray,  or  in  suspension  in  liquid  other  than 
oil  or  similar  medium. 


>  whether  on-glaze  or  under-glaze. 


88  BULLETIN    OF   THE   BUKEAU    OP    LABOK. 

Schedule  B.1 

NOTICE  TO  WORKMEN   EMPLOYED  IN  PROCESSES   NAMED  IN   SCHEDULE  A,   OTHER  THAN 

CHINA  SCOURING. 

Conditions  of  compensation. 

1.  Where  a  workman  is  suspended  from  working  by  a  certifying  surgeon 
of  the  district  on  the  ground  that  he  is  of  opinion  that  such  person  by  continued 
work  in  lead  will  incur  special  danger  from  the  effects  of  plumbism,  and  the  cer- 
tifying surgeon  shall  certify  that  in  his  opinion  he  is  suffering  from  plumbism 
arsing  out  of  his  employment,  he  shall,  subject  as  hereinafter  mentioned,  be 
entitled  to  compensation  from  his  employer  as  hereinafter  provided. 

(a)  If  any  workman  who  has  been  suspended  as  aforesaid  dies  within  nine 
calendar  months  from  the-  date  of  such  certificate  of  suspension,  by  reason  of 
plumbism  contracted  before  the  said  date,  there  shall  be  paid  to  such  of  his 
dependents  as  are  wholly  dependent  upon  his  earnings  at  the  time  of  his 
death  or  upon  the  weekly  compensation  payable  under  this  scheme,  a  sum 
equal  to  the  amount  he  has  earned  during  a  period  of  three  years  next  preceding 
the  date  of  the  said  certificate,  such  sum  not  to  be  more  than  £300  [$1,459.95] 
nor  less  than  £150  [$729.98]  for  an  adult  male,  £100  [$486.65]  for  an  adult 
female,  and  £75  [$364.99]  for  a  young  person. 

(6)  If  the  workman  does  not  leave  any  dependents  wholly  dependent  as  afore- 
said, but  leaves  any  dependents  in  part  dependent  as  aforesaid,  a  reasonable 
part  of  that  sum. 

(c)  If  he  leaves  no  dependents,  the  reasonable  expenses  of  his  medical  at- 
tendance and  burial,  not  exceeding  £10  [$48.67]. 

2.  With  respect  to  such  payments  the  following  provisions  shall  apply : 

(a)  All  sums  paid  to  the  workman  as  compensation  since  the  date  of  the  said 
certificate  shall  be  deducted  from  the  sums  payable  to  the  dependents. 

(&)  The  payment  shall,  in  case  of  death,  be  made  to  the  legal  personal  repre- 
sentative of  the  workman,  or,  if  he  has  no  legal  personal  representative,  to  or 
for  the  benefit  of  his  dependents,  or,  if  he  leaves  no  dependents,  to  the  person 
to  whom  the  expenses  are  due ;  and  if  made  to  the  legal  personal  representative 
shall  be  paid  by  him  to  or  for  the  benefit  of  the  dependents  or  other  person 
entitled  thereto. 

(c)  Any  question  as  to  who  is  a  dependent,  or  as  to  the  amount  payable  to 
each  dependent,  shall  in  default  of  agreement  be  settled  by  arbitration  as  here- 
inafter provided  in  clause  9. 

(d)  The  sum  allotted  as  compensation  to  a  dependent  may  be  invested  or 
otherwise  applied  for  the  benefit  of  the  person  entitled  thereto,  as  agreed,  or 
as  ordered  by  the  arbitrator. 

(e)  Any  sum  which  is  agreed  or  is  ordered  by  the  arbitrator  to  be  invested 
may  be  invested  in  whole  or  in  part  in  the  Post-Office  Savings  Bank. 

3.  Where  a  workman  has  been  suspended  and  certified  as  provided  in  condi- 
tion 1,  and  while  he  is  totally  or  partially  prevented  from  earning  a  living  by 
reason  of  such  suspension,  he  shall  be  entitled  to  a  weekly  payment  not  exceed- 
ing 50  per  cent  of  his  average  weekly  earnings  at  the  time  of  such  suspension, 
such  payment  not  to  exceed  £1  [$4.87].  The  average  may  be  taken  over  such 
period,  not  exceeding  12  months,  as  appears  fair  or  reasonable,  having  regard  to 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

4.  In  fixing  these  weekly  payments,  regard  shall  be  had  to  the  difference  be- 
tween the  amount  of  the  average  weekly  earnings  of  the  workman  at  the  time 
of  his  suspension  and  the  average  amount,  if  any,  which  it  is  estimated  that  he 
will  be  able  to  earn  afterwards  in  any  occupation  or  employment,  and  to  any 
payments  (not  being  wages)  which  he  may  have  received  from  the  employer 
in  respect  to  the  suspension,  and  to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  including 
his  age  and  expectation  of  life. 

5.  If  it  shall  appear  that  any  workman  has  persistently  disobeyed  the  special 
rules  or  the  directions  given  for  his  protection  by  his  employers,  and  that  such 
disobedience  has  conduced  to  his  suspension,  or  has  not  presented  himself  for 
examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon,  or  has  failed  to  give  full  Information 
and  assistance  as  provided  in  condition  6,  his  conduct  may  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  assessing  the  amount  of  the  weekly  payments. 

1  Provision  has  since  been  made  for  compensation  in  case  of  lead  poisoning  by  section 
8  of  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act,  1906. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTEKIES,    TILE   WORKS,   ETC.  89 

6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  workman  at  all  times  to  submit  to  medical 
examination  when  required  and  to  give  full  information  to  the  certifying 
surgeon  and  to  assist  to  the  best  of  bis  power  in  tbe  obtaining  of  all  facts 
necessary  to  enable  bis  physical  condition  to  be  ascertained. 

7.  Any  weekly  payment  may  be  reviewed  at  the  request  either  of  the  employer 
or  of  the  workman,  and  on  such  review  may  be  ended,  diminished,  or  increased, 
subject  to  the  maximum  above  provided,  and  the  amount  of  payments  shall,  in 
default  of  agreement,  be  settled  by  arbitration. 

8.  Any  workman  receiving  weekly  payments  under  this  scheme  shall  submit 
himself  if  required  for  examination  by  a  duly  qualified  medical  practitioner 
provided  and  paid  by  the  employer. 

If  the  workman  refuses  to  submit  himself  to  such  examination,  or  in  any  way 
obstructs  the  same,  his  right  to  such  weekly  payments  shall  be  suspended  until 
such  examination  has  taken  place. 

9.  If  any  dispute  shall  arise  as  to  any  certificate  of  the  certifying  surgeon 
or  as  to  the  amount  of  compensation  payable  as  herein  provided,  or  otherwise 
in  relation  to  these  provisions,  the  same  shall  be  decided  by  an  arbitrator  to 
be  appointed  by  the  employer  and  workman,  or  in  default  of  agreement  by 
the  secretary  of  state.  The  said  arbitrator  shall  have  all  the  powers  of  an 
arbitrator  under  the  arbitration  act  and  his  decision  shall  be  final. 

The  fee  of  the  arbitrator  shall  be  fixed  by  the  secretary  of  state,  and  shall 
be  paid  as  the  arbitrator  shall  direct. 

10.  No  compensation  shall  be  payable  under  these  provisions  unless  a  claim 
in  writing  is  made  within  six  weeks  of  the  date  of  the  certificate  of  suspen- 
sion, or  of  the  death :  Provided,  That  the  want  of  such  notice  shall  not  bar  the 
claim  if  in  the  opinion  of  the  arbitrator  there  was  reasonable  excuse  for  the 
want  of  it.  a 

A  claim  for  compensation  by  any  workman  whose  employment  is  intermittent, 
or  casual,  or  who  is  regularly  employed  by  more  than  one  employer,  shall  only 
arise  against  the  employers  for  whom  he  has  worked  in  a  process  included  in 
schedule  A  within  one  month  prior  to  his  suspension.  The  said  employers  shall 
bear  the  compensation  among  them  in  such  proportion  as  in  default  or  agree- 
ment shall  be  determined  by  an  arbitrator  as  herein  provided. 

11.  "  Employer  "  includes  an  occupier,  a  corporation,  and  the  legal  representa- 
tives of  a  deceased  employer.  "  Workman "  includes  every  person,  male  or 
female,  whether  his  agreement  be  one  of  service  or  apprenticeship  or  otherwise, 
and  is  expressed  or  implied,  orally  or  in  writing,  and  shall  include  the  personal 
representatives  of  a  deceased  workman.  "  Dependents  "  has  the  same  meaning 
as  in  the  Workmen's  Compensation  Act,  1897.1 

The  terms  contained  in  this  notice  shall  be  deemed  to  be  part  of  the  contract 
of  employment  of  all  workmen  in  the  above-named  processes. 

(Occupier's  signature.) . 

FOB  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  TEANSFEES  FOR  EABTHENWABE  AND  CHINA. 

Duties  of  occupiers. 

1.  No  person  under  15  years  of  age  shall  be  employed  in  making  transfers  for 
earthenware  or  china. 

2.  All  women  and  young  persons  employed  shall  be  examined  once  a  month 
by  the  certifying  surgeon  for  the  district,  who  shall  after  May  1,  1S99,  have 
power  to  order  suspension  from  employment. 

No  person  after  such  suspension  shall  be  allowed  to  work  without  the  written 
sanction  of  the  certifying  surgeon. 

3.  A  register,  in  the  form  which  has  been  prescribed  by  the  secretary  of  state 
for  use  in  earthenware  and  china  works,  shall  be  kept,  and  in  it  the  certifying 
surgeon  will  enter  the  dates  and  results  of  his  visits,  the  number  of  persons 
examined,  and  particulars  of  any  directions  given  by  him.  This  register  shall 
contain  a  list  of  all  persons  employed,  and  shall  be  produced  at  any  time  when 
required  by  His  Majesty's  inspector  of  factories  or  by  the  certifying  surgeon. 

4.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  suitable  overalls  and  head  cover- 
ings for  all  women  and  young  persons  employed  in  rooms  in  which  color 
processes  are  carried  on. 

All  overalls  and  head  coverings  shall  be  kept  by  the  occupier  in  proper  custody 
and  shall  be  washed  at  least  once  a  week,  and  suitable  arrangements  shall  be 
made  for  carrying  out  these  requirements. 

A  suitable  place  shall  be  provided  in  which  the  above  workers  can  deposit 
clothing  put  off  during  working  hours. 

1  60,  61  Vict.,  ch.  37. 


90  BULLETIN    OF   THE   BUEEAIT    OF   LABOE. 

It  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  this  rule  as  to 
head  coverings  if  they  are  made  of  suitable  glazed  paper  and  renewed  once  a 
week,  The  head  coverings  shall  be  made  so  as  completely  to  cover  the  hair  and 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  inspector. 

5.  No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  prepare  or  partake  of  any  food  or  drink,  or 
to  remain  during  mealtimes,  in  any  place  in  which  is  carried  on  the  making  of 
transfers. 

The  occupier  shall  make  suitable  provision  to  the  reasonable  satisfaction  of 
the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  district  for  the  accommodation  during  mealtimes 
of  persons  employed  in  such  places  or  processes,  with  a  right  of  appeal  to  the 
chief  inspector  of  factories. 

6.  Transfer  making  shall  not  be  carried  on  without  the  use  of  exhaust  fans 
for  the  effectual  removal  of  dust,  or  other  efficient  means  for  the  effectual 
removal  of  dust,  to  be  approved  in  each  particular  ease  by  the  secretary  of 
state,  and  under  such  conditions  as  he  may  from  time  to  time  prescribe. 

7.  The  occupier  shall  provide  and  maintain  sufficient  and  suitable  washing 
conveniences  for  all  persons  employed,  as  near  as  is  practicable  to  the  places  in 
which   such  persons  are  employed. 

The  washing  conveniences  shall  comprise  soap,  nailbrushes,  and  towels,  and 
at  least  one  wash  hand  basin  for  every  five  persons  employed  as  above,  with  a 
constant  supply  of  water  laid  on,  with  one  tap  at  least  for  every  two  basins,  and 
conveniences  for  emptying  the  same  and  running  off  the  waste  water  on  the  spot 
down  a  waste  pipe. 

Duties  of  persons  employed. 

%    8.  All  women  and  young  persons  employed  shall  present  themselves  at  the 
appointed  time  for  examination  by  the  certifying  surgeon  as  provided  in  rule  2. 
No  person  after  suspension  by  the  certifying  surgeon  shall  work  without  the 
written   sanction  of  the  certifying   surgeon. 

9.  Every  person  employed  in  any  room  in  which  color  processes  are  carried  on 
shall,  when  at  work,  wear  an  overall  suit  and  head  covering,  which  shall  not  be 
worn  outside  the  factory  or  workshop,  and  which  shall  not  be  removed  there- 
from except  for  the  purpose  of  being  washed.  All  overalls  and  head  coverings 
shall  be  washed  or  renewed  at  least  once  a  week. 

The  overalls  and  head  coverings,  when  not  being  worn,  shall  be  deposited  in 
the  place  provided  for  the  purpose  under  rule  4. 

Clothing  put  off  during  working  hours  shall  be  deposited  in  the  place  provided 
for  the  purpose  under  rule  4. 

It  shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  this  rule  as  to 
head  coverings  if  they  are  made  of  suitable  glazed  paper  and  renewed  once  a 
week.  The  head  coverings  shall  be  made  so  as  completely  to  cover  the  hair  and 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  inspector. 

10.  No  person  shall  remain  during  mealtimes  in  any  place  in  which  is  carried 
on  the  making  of  transfers;  or  prepare  or  partake  of  any -food  or  drink  therein 
at  any  time. 

11.  No  person  shall  in  any  way  interfere,  without  the  knowledge  and  concur- 
rence of  the  occupier  or  manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  by 
the  employers  for  the  ventilation  of  the  workshops  and  for  the  removal  of  dust. 

12.  No  person  employed  shall  leave  the  works  or  partake  of  meals  without 
previously  and  carefully  cleaning  and  washing  his  or  her  hands. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  VITREOUS  ENAMELING  OF  METAL  OR  GLASS.1 

Whereas  the  process  of  vitreous  enameling  of  metal  or  glass  has  beers  cer- 
tified in  pursuance  of  section  79  of  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act,  1901,2 
to  be  dangerous; 

*  *  *  The  following  regulations  *  *  *  shall  apply  to  all  factories 
and  workshops  in  which  vitreous  enameling  of  metal  or  glass  is  car- 
ried on. 

Provided  that  nothing  in  these  regulations  shall  apply  to — 

(a)  the  enameling  of  jewelry  or  watches;  or 

(b)  the  manufacture  of  stained  glass;  or 

(c)  enameling  by  means  of  glazes  or  colors  containing  less  than  1  per 

cent  of  lead. 
These  regulations  shall  come  into  force  on  1st  April,  1909. 

1  Those  regulations  were  gazetted  December  22,  1908. 
21  Eds-.  7,  c.  22. 


LEAD   POISONING  IN   POTTEEIES,    TILE   WOBKS,   ETC.  91 

DEFINITIONS. 

In  these  regulations — 

"  Enameling  ;'  means  crushing,  grinding,  sieving,  dusting  or  laying  on, 
brushing  or  wooling  off,  spraying,  or  any  other  process  for  the  pur- 
pose of  vitreous  covering  and  decoration  of  metal  or  glass ; 

"Employed"  means  employed  in  enameling; 

"  Surgeon  "  means  the  certifying  factory  surgeon  of  the  district  or  a 
duly  qualified  medical  practitioner  appointed  by  written  certificate  of 
the  chief  inspector  of  factories,  which  appointment  shall  be  subject 
to  such  conditions  as  may  be  specified  in  that  certificate ; 

"  Suspension "  means  suspension  by  written  certificate  in  the  health 
register,  signed  by  the  surgeon,  from  employment  in  any  enameling 
process. 

DUTIES. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  occupier  to  observe  Part  I  of  these  regulations. 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  persons  employed  to  observe  Part  II  of  these  regu- 
lations. 

Part  I. — Dudes  of  employers. 

1.  EA^ery  room  in  which  any  enameling  process  is  carried  on— 

(a)  shall  contain  at  least  500  cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  person 

employed  therein,   and  in  computing  this  air   space  no  height 
above  14  feet  shall  be  taken  into  account ; 

(b)  shall  be  efficiently  lighted,  and  shall  for  this  purpose  have  efficient 

means  of  lighting  both  natural  and  artificial. 

2.  In  every  room  in  which  any  enameling  process  is  carried  on— 

(a)  the  floors  shall  be  well  and  closely  laid,  and  be  maintained  in  good 

condition ; 

(b)  the  floors  and  benches  shall  be  cleansed  daily  and  kept  free  of  col- 

lections of  dust. 

3.  No  enameling  process  giving  rise  to  dust  or  spray  shall  be  done  save 

either — 
'(a)   under  conditions  which  secure  the  absence  of  dust  and  spraj-;  or 
(b)  with  an  efficient  exhaust  so  arranged  as  to  intercept  the  dust  or 
spray  and  prevent  it  from  diffusing  into  the  air  of  the  room. 

4.  Except  in  cases  where  glaze  is  applied  to  a  heated  metallic  surface,  dust- 

ing or  laying  on,  and  brushing  or  wooling  off,  shall  not  be  done  except 
over  a  grid  with  a  receptacle  beneath  to  intercept  the  dust  falling 
through. 

5.  If  firing  is  done  in  a  room  not  specially  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  no 

person  shall  be  employed  in  any  other  process  within  20  feet  from  the 
furnace. 

6.  Such  arrangements  shall  be  made  as  shall  effectually  prevent  gases  gen- 

erated in  the  muffle  furnaces  from  entering  the  workrooms. 

7.  No  child  or  young  person  under  16  years  of  age  shall  be  employed  in  any 

enameling  process. 

8.  A  health  register,  containing  the  names  of  all  persons  employed,  shall  be 

kept  in  a  form  approved  by  the  chief  inspector  of  factories. 

9.  Every  person  employed  shall  be  examined  by  the  surgeon  once  in  every 

three  months  (or  at  such  intervals  as  may  be  prescribed  in  writing  by 
the  chief  inspector  of  factories)  on  a  date  of  which  due  notice  shall  be 
given  to  all  concerned. 

10.  The  surgeon  shall  have  power  of  suspension  as  regards  all  persons  em- 

ployed, and  no  person  after  suspension  shall  be  employed  without  writ- 
ten sanction  from  the  surgeon  entered  in  the  health  register. 

11.  There  shall  be  provided  and  maintained  for  the  use  of  all  persons  em- 

ployed— 

(a)  suitable  overalls  and  head  coverings,  which  shall  be  collected  at 

the  end  of  every  day's  work,  and  be  cleaned  or  renewed  at  least 
once  every  week ; 

(b)  a  suitable  place,  separate  from  the  cloakroom  and  meal  room,  for 

the  storage  of  the  overalls  and  head  coverings : 

(c)  a  suitable  cloakroom  for  clothing  put  off  during  working  hours ; 

(d)  a  suitable  meal  room  separate  from  any  room  in  which  enameling 

processes  are  carried  on,  unless  the  works  are  closed  during  meal 
hours. 


92  BULLETIN    OP    THE   BUEEAU    OF   LABOE. 

12.  There  shall  be  provided  and  maintained  in  a  cleanly  state  and  in  good 

repair,  for  the  use  of  all  persons  employed,  a  lavatory,  under 
cover,  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  clean  towels,  renewed  daily, 
and  of  soap  and  nailbrushes,  and  with  either — 

(a)  a  trough  with  a  smooth  impervious  surface,  fitted  with  a  waste 

pipe  without  a  plug,  and  of  such  length  as  to  allow  at  least 
two  feet  for  every  five  such  persons,  and  having  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  warm  water  from  taps  or  jets  above  the  trough  at  inter- 
vals of  not  more  than  two  feet ;  or 

(b)  at  least  one  lavatory  basin  for  every  five  such  persons,  fitted  with 

a  waste  pipe  and  plug  or  placed  in  a  trough  having  a  waste 
pipe,  and  having  either  a  constant  supply  of  hot  and  cold  water 
or  warm  water  laid  on,  or  (if  a  constant  supply  of  heated  water 
be  not  reasonably  practicable)  a  constant  supply  of  cold  water 
laid  on  and  a  supply  of  hot  water  always  at  hand  when  required 
for  use  by  persons  employed. 

13.  The  occupier  shall  allow  any  of  H.  M.  inspectors  of  factories  to  take 

at  any   time  sufficient  samples  for  analysis  of  any  enameling 
material  in  use  or  mixed  for  use. 
Provided,  that  the  occupier  may  at  the  time  when  the  sample  is  taken,  and 
upon  providing  the  necessary  appliances,  require  the  inspector  to  take,  seal  and 
deliver  to  him  a  duplicate  sample. 

No  results  of  any  analysis  shall  be  published  without  the  consent  of  the 
occupier,  except  such  as  may  be  necessary  to  prove  the  presence  of  lead  when 
there  has  been  infraction  of  the  regulations. 

Part  II. — Duties  of  persons  employed. 

14.  Every  person  employed  shall — 

(a)  present  himself  at  the   appointed   time   for   examination  by   the 

surgeon  as  provided  in  regulation  9  ; 

(b)  wear  the   overall   and  head  covering  provided   under   regulation 

11  (a),  and  deposit  them  and  clothing  put  oif  during  working 
hours,  in  the  places  provided  under  regulation  11  (b)  and  (c)  ; 

(c)  carefully  clean  the  hands  before  partaking  of  any  food  or  leaving 

the  premises ; 

(d)  so  arrange  the  hair  that  it  shall  be  effectually  protected  from  dust 

by  the  head  covering. 

15.  No  person  employed  shall — 

(a)  after  suspension,  work  in  any  enameling  process  without  written 

sanction  from  the  surgeon  entered  in  the  health  register; 

(b)  introduce,  keep,  prepare,  or  partake  of  any  food,  drink,  or  tobacco, 

in  any  room  in  which  an  enameling  process  is  carried  on ; 

(c)  interfere  in  any  way,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  occupier  or 

manager,  with  the  means  and  appliances  provided  for  the  re- 
moval of  dust  or  fumes,  and  for  the  carrying  out  of  these 
regulations. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Page. 

American  and  British  potteries,  lead  poisoning  in,  comparison  as  to  frequency  and 

severity  of  cases   of 53-56 

American  and  foreign  potteries,  comparison  of  conditions  in 76,  77 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries,  United  States  : 

Danger  in  glazing  and  decorating  work,  degree  of 23 

Employees,  conditions  of,  compared  with  those  in  white-ware  potteries 22,  23 

Employees,  number  and  distribution  of ' 6,  25 

Glazes,   composition  of 12-14,24 

Lead  poisoning  cases  found,  number  of 51,  52 

Lead  poisoning,   frequency  of 52,  53 

Lead  poisoning,  frequency  of,  general  belief  as  to 49-51 

Lead  poisoning,  frequency  of,  in  men  and  in  women 56—58 

Lead  poisoning  in,  and  in  tile  works 48— 58 

Lead  poisoning,  workers  and  wages  in  relation  to,  character  of 48,  49 

Nationality  of  workers  in 48,  49 

Sanitary    conditions 30 

Art  tiles.      (See  Tile   works.) 

Austrian  potteries  and  tile  works 76 

Austrian,  German,  and  British  porcelain  enameled  sanitary  ware  factories 79-82 

B. 

British  and  American  potteries,  lead  poisoning  in,  comparison  as  to  frequency  and 

severity   of   cases   of 53-56 

British,  Austrian,  and  German  porcelain  enameled  sanitary  ware  factories 79-82 

British  potteries  and  tile  works 69—72 

British  regulations  for  the  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  china 83-90 

British  regulations  for  vitreous  enameling  of  metal  or  glass 90-92 

C. 

China  and  earthenware,  British  regulations  for  the  manufacture  of 83-90 

Color  work,  description  of,  white-ware  potteries 19,  20 

D. 

Dangers  in  pottery  industry,  character  of 6,  7 

Decorating  and  glazing  : 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries 22-25 

Tile  works 25-28 

White-ware    potteries 14—22 

Dippers'  helpers,  white-ware  potteries,  work  of 16—18 

Dipping,  white-ware  potteries,  description  of  process 16 

E. 

Earthenware  and  china,  British  regulations  for  the  manufacture  of S3-90 

Employees,   nationality  of.      (See  Nationality  of  workers.) 
Employees,  number  and  distribution  of  : 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries 6,  25 

Porcelain  enameled  iron  sanitary  ware  factories 6,  39 

Tile    works 6,  28 

White-ware    potteries 6,  22 

Enamel,  composition  of,  iron  sanitary  ware 31— 33 

Enamel,  process  of  mixing,  iron  sanitary  ware  factories 33-35 

Enamelers,  iron  sanitary  ware  factories,  description  of  work  and  character  of 37-39 

Enameling  of  iron  sanitary  ware,  method  of 35,  36 

Enameling,  vitreous,  of  metal  or  glass,  British  regulations  for 90-92 

Establishments  studied  in  present  investigation,  number  of 5.6 

Exposure  in  lead-poiscning  cases,  length  of 61-64 

F. 

Factories  and  workshops  engaged  in  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  china,  British 

regulations  for 83—90 

G. 

German,  Austrian,  and  British  porcelain  enameled  sanitary  ware  factories J2~2;? 

German  potteries  and  tile  works J-—  ib 

Glass  or  metal,  vitieous  enameling  of,  British  regulations  for 90-9*2 

Glazes,  composition  of  :  . 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries 1--14,    4 

Formulas  used  in  Austria  and  Prussia ----  68 

Tile  works 12-14,  25,  26 

White-ware  potteries 12—14 

93 


94  INDEX. 

Page. 

Glazing  and  decorating: 

Art   and   utility  ware 22-25 

Tile  works 25-28 

White  ware 14-22 

Glost-kiln  men,  white-ware  potteries,  work  of 18,  19 

Great    Britain    and    America,    frequency    of    lead-poisoning    eases    in    potteries    of, 

compared 53-55 

Great    Britain    and    America,    severity    cf    lead-poisoning    cases    in    potteries    of, 

compared 55,  56 

Great  Britain,  potteries  and  tile  works 69-72 

Great  Britain,  regulations  for  the  manufacture  cf  earthenware  and  china 83-00 

H. 

Hygienic  conditions  and  regulations  in  potteries,  tile  works,  and  enameled  sanitary 

ware  w-erks,  Austria,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain 6G-S2 

Hygienic   conditions.      (See  also  Sanitary   conditions.) 

L. 

Lead,  per  cent  of,  used  in  enamel  and  glazes 12T 13,  24-26,  31-33,  68 

Lead  poisoning : 

Danger  of,  whether  increasing  in  industries  studied 65 

Extent  of,  among  pottery  workers 8,  9 

In  British,  German,  and   Austrian  potteries 77-79 

Symptoms   and   progress   of 9,  10 

Typical   cases  of . 10,  11 

Lead  poisoning.     (See  also  Art  and  utility  ware  potteries;  Porcelain  enameled  iron 
sanitary  ware  factories  ;  Potteries  ;  White-ware  potteries.) 

M. 

Metal  or  glass,  vitreous  enameling  of,  British  regulations  for 90—92 

Mill  hands,  iron  sanitary  ware  factories,  description  of  work  and  character  of 37 

If. 
Nationality  of  workers  in  : 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries  and  tile  works 48,  49 

Sanitary- w are    factories 37 

White-ware     potteries 20-22 

P. 

Plants  studied  in  present  investigation,  number  of 5,  6 

Porcelain  enameled  iron  ranitary  ware  factories: 

Austria,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain 79-82 

Employees,  description  of  work  and  character  of 37-39 

Employees,  number  and  distribution  of 6,  39 

Enamel,   composition   of 31—33 

Enamel,    process   of   mixing 33-35 

Enamelers,   description   of  work   and  character  of 37-39 

Enameling,  dangers  involved  in  work  of o_  36 

Enameling,    process    of 35,  36 

Lead,  effect  of,  with  reference  to  nature  of  work 64,  65 

Lead    poisoning 58-65 

Lead  poisoning,  intensive  study  of  148  men  having 59—62 

Lead  poisoning,  length  of  exposure  in  cases  of 62-64 

Lead  poisoning,  severity  of  cases  of 64 

Mill  hands,  description  of  work  and  character  of 37 

Nationality  of  workers  in 37 

Plants  studied,  number  of 31 

Sanitary    conditions 39-41 

JPott&riss  ■ 

American  and  foreign,  comparison  of  conditions  in 76,  77 

Dangers  to  workers  in,  character  of 6,  7 

Glazes,   composition   of 12—14 

Glazes,  formulas  for,  used  in  Austria  and  Prussia 68 

Lead  poisoning ^l-^ 

Lead  poisoning,   extent  of <n8i? 

Lead  poisoning,  history  of  each  of  10  typical  cases  of 10,  11 

Lead  poisoning,   sources  of  information 41—4.', 

Lead  poisoning,   symptoms  and  progress  of 9,  10 

Sanitary    conditions    «jS 

Tile  works  and.  in  Austria,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain 6Q-iv 

Potteries.      (See  also  Art  and  utility  ware  potteries  ;  White-ware  potteries  ) 

R. 

Regulations  and  hygienic  conditions  in  potteries,  tile  works,  and  enameled  sanitary 

ware  works,  Austria,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain 66—82 

Rockingham  ware.      (See  Art  and  utility  ware.) 

S. 

Sanitary  conditions  :  , 

American  and  foreign  potteries,  comparison  of <t>,  r< 

Art  and  utility  ware  potteries.  United  States gO 

Porcelain  enameled  sanitary  ware  factories,  Austria,  Germany,  Great  Britain-  a 9-82 

Porcelain  enameled  sanitary  ware  factories,  United  States ~~|J 

Potteries  and  tile  works,  Austria J* 

Potteries  and  tile  works,   Germany LtT^-% 

Potteries  and  tile  works,  Great  Britain v'i 

Potteries,  general  statement  of ««*> 

Tile  works,   United   States 30,  61 

White-ware  potteries,  United  States 29,  oU 


INDEX.  95 

Page. 
Sanitary  conditions.      (See  also  Hygienic  conditions.) 

Sanitary  ware  factories.      (See  Porcelain  enameled  iron  sanitary  ware  factories.) 

Symptoms  and  progress  of  lead  poisoning 9,  10 

T. 

Tile  works  : 

And  potteries,  in  Austria,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain 6G-79 

Employees,  number  and  distribution  of r>,  28 

Giazes,   composition  of 12-14,25,20 

Glazes,  formulas  for,  used  in  Austria  and  Prussia 6S 

Plants  studied,  number  of 25 

Processes  of  glazing  and  decorating,  description  of 20—28 

Sanitary  conditions,   United   States 30,  31 

V. 

Vitreous  enameling  of  metal  or  glass,  British  regulations  for 00-92 

W. 

White-ware  potteries  : 

Color  work,  description  of 19,  20 

Dippers'   helpers,   work   of 10-18 

Dipping,  process  of 10 

Employees,  description  and  distribution  of . 0,  20-22 

Glazes,  composition   of 12-14 

Glost-kiln  men,  work  of 18,  19 

Lead  poisoning 43-48 

Lead  poisoning,   female  employees 47 

Lead  poisoning,   frequency   of 52,  53 

Lead  poisoning,  frequency  of,  in  men  and  women 47,  48 

Lead    poisoning,    male   employees 44-48 

Mixing  the  glaze,  process  of 15,  16 

Nationality  of  workers  in 20-22 

Processes  of  glazing  and  decorating,  description  of 14—20 

Sanitary  conditions 29,30 

Workshops  and  factories  engaged  m  manufacture  of  earthenware  and  china,  British 

regulations  for 83-90 

Y. 

Yellow  ware.      (See  Art  and  utility  ware.) 


o 


DUE  DATE 


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